Posts Tagged ‘19th century’

The blank was then subjected to an acid
bath, to give the surface a matt finish.
Knamels were applied somewhat thinly,
except in areas that were to have a raised
design, and these were fired on. The most
popular colours were whiles, tans and soft
pastel shades, though occasionally brighter
colours were employed. The usual floral,
figural, animal, bird and fish motifs of the
Mt. Washington Glass Company were
used on this ware. Ornate handles, finials
and prunts were also to be found. The
initials ‘C apd ‘M’ one upon the other,
with a five-pointed crown above, was the
trademark, though occasionally the crown
was omitted. Thomas Webb & Sons of
Kngland produced a similar ware some
time between 1880 00, as illustrated
above. The New Bedford works may have
produced the so-called ‘Shiny Crown
Milano’, a glossy white opal glass, usually
with gold-coloured floral decoration. It is
found with a red laurel wreath fired to the
bottom of the glass.
In 1870 I lenry Cielhing Richardson of the
firm of Hodgetts, Richardson & Son of
Stourbridge, Kngland, patented a method
for ‘Improvements In Producing Orna-
ments, Designs, And Inscriptions On Or
In Glass’. A wide open-mouthed vessel in
clear glass was made, and when it had
cooled, had a design enamelled on its
inside. The thin-walled vessel was then
heated to a low redness while a second
smaller bubble of opal or other coloured
glass was lowered into it. This was blown
until it attached itself to the inside of the
vessel, thus covering and imprisoning the
enamelled design between the two layers.
The designs were painted so that when the
paraison expanded they did not distort too
much. The same effect could be made by
painting a design in coloured enamels on
an opal or coloured glass and then
immersing this in clear colourless glass to
lock the design in. Once the design was
imprisoned, the glass could be shaped into
the article wanted.
mary gregory vase in green glass with girl and
butter ely net enamelled in white
Atlributcd to Boston & Sandwich Glass Company,
U.S.A., iqth century
So-called ‘Mary Gregory’ glass is a trans-
parent coloured glassware with white or
coloured enamel designs painted and fired
on to the surface. It was a cheap imitation
of English cameo glass, but with a certain
merit of its own. Such wares were made
more prolifically on the Continent than in
America. However, much of the ware has
been erroneously attributed to one of the
older American glass factories in Sand-
wich, Mass., the Boston & Sandwich Glass
Company. The firm is known primarily
for its pressed wares of the early 1830’s,
but later it produced some decorated
glasses, possibly including enamelled glass
of this type. A Mary Gregory is supposed
to have been employed in the decorating
department of the Cape Cod works, which
is the reason for the name given to the
glass. Some genuine Boston & Sandwich
pieces depict young children engaged in
butterfly-collecting, the detail, including
the childrens’ facial features, being beauti-
fully finished.
vase with enamelled decoration
Signed Moser, Bohemia, early 20th century
Ht. 26c mm
Bohemian sources continued to search for
a cheaper method of producing work with
the same surface decorative effect as
English cameo work. They usually
achieved this in Mary Gregory style, with
simulated cameo decoration in extremely
fine white enamel work on overlay vases.
Their work was good, but unfortunately it
depressed the fine English cameo market,
since the genuine cameo work was expen-
sive to produce. In a different category of
enamelling technique comes the work of
Kolo Moser, a Bohemian designer as well
as decorator of glass in the early tooo’s,
who was counted as one of the finer
European glassmen of this period. His
pieces can be recognised by their very fine
enamelling, as in the vase illustrated.
Moser’s work included the introduction to
the market of an amethyst dichroic trans-
parent glass called ‘Alexandria (not to be
confused with the three-coloured ware of
Thomas Webb and Stevens & Williams of
England, which went under the name of
‘Alexandrite’).
VASE WITH ENAMELLED DECORATION
by Maurice Marinoi, France, c. 1920.
Hi. 343 mm (13 50 in.)
Maurice Marinot (born 1882), the most
decisive personality in the history of art
glass between the wars, began as a painter.
Between 1905 and 1914 he was exhibiting
regularly, already showing a tendency for
clear and orderly composition and an
imaginative use of colour. He was intro-
duced to glass-making in 1911, when he
visited the glass factory of Viard near
Troyes, and started to direct the produc-
tion of glass, which he himself decorated
with enamels. His glasses became col-
lectors’ items almost immediately, espec-
ially after his exhibition at the Salon des
link-pendants in 1912. Simple in shape,
they were decorated with the heads and
figures of women. As he began to under-
stand better the technique of enamelling,
his colours became even richer and the
texture finer. The pieces he made after the
First World War showed extraordinary
freedom and refinement, and the colours
had great subtlety, though his pre-war
pieces had a youthful zest which was all
their own.
SPOUTED WINE-GLASS IN CLEAR COLOURLESS GLASS, WITH
GILDING AND PAINTING
Hall-in-ihe-Tyrol, 1536. Ht. 335 mm (1315 in.)
Cold Painted Glass: Unfired colours, such
as lacquer, varnish and oil pigments, have
all been used to decorate glass, but they
easily rub off, and must therefore be con-
sidered a poorer form of coloured decora-
tion than fired enamels. Examples of
Roman glass with unfired paintings have
been found. It is also known that at about
the middle of the 16th century, after
enamelling had gone out of fashion, a form
of decoration in unfired oil colours was in
favour in Italy. Elaborate pictorial sub-
jects were used, often based on Raphael’s
work, with elaborate gilt scroll-work, but
the decoration was naturally very liable to
damage. Unfired lacquer painting and
gilding was used as decoration at the Hall-
in-the-Tyrol glass-house, which flourished
in the third quarter of the 16th century.
The spouted ewer illustrated is typical of
this work. In England, cheaper glass
products of the 19th century, such as
rolling pins and sugar basins, bore unfired
painted decoration.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
Lustre-painted Glass: An old technique
which was neither cold painting nor
enamelling, but did involve the firing-on
of a film of pigment to the glass, was known
as lustre painting. Depending on the
firing, the film became more or less
lustrous, and was almost imperceptible to
the touch. Exactly how it was done has
never been discovered, but there is reason
to connect the technique with that of
lustre-painting on tin-glazed pottery which
was practised first in Mesopotamia in the
9th century A.D. The method depended
on the reduction of metallic compounds
such as silver, copper or gold to the
metallic state by means of the carbon in
smoke. Generally speaking, the lustre
produced was reddish-brown in colour.
The technique was first practised in
Egypt, in either the late Byzantine or early
Islamic period, and was probably known
to Syrian glass-makers. In more modern
times platinum and bismuth have been
used as metallic compounds to produce
lusires on glassware (see Iridescent Glass).
Gold Decoration: Gold Sandwich Glass:
Apart from gold included in mosaic glass,
some of the earliest examples of gold
decoration are the gold sandwich glasses
found at Canosa in Apulia, Italy, dating to
the 3rd century B.C. (see Techniques
Before Blowing). After blowing was in-
vented in the 1st century B.C. the tech-
nique of sandwiching gold foil between
two glass layers was not abandoned, but
reached its most prolific period in approx-
imately the 4th century A.D. The majority
of these gilded glasses of the 3rd and 4th
centuries A.D. were found in the cata-
combs around Rome, embedded in the
plaster of the loculi, probably put there by
the relatives of the dead. These early
Christian fondi <f oro, as they are some-
times called, arc in fact the bases of
shallow bowls or dishes. The gold leaf
which was put inside the base ring of the
glass was engraved and sometimes, as in
the above example, had additional painted
decoration. This was covered with a
further protective layer of glass, which
was fused or cemented’to the base of the
bowl.
fragment of a bowi. in gold sandwich glass
depicting christ
lialy, 4ih century A.D. Diam. 90 mm (3′55 >n-)
The glass was broken away to the edge of
the gold decoration, so that a medallion-
like effect was achieved. Sometimes the
outer layer was coloured, but usually both
layers of glass were colourless. The sub-
jects depicted were taken from Jewish and
Christian symbolism and Biblical history,
but pagan motifs also appeared, such as
scenes from games and Classical myth-
ology, and dedications can be found to
circus heroes as well as to saints. The ware
was almost certainly manufactured at a
workshop in or near Rome. The name of a
4th-century A.D. bishop, Damasus, ap-
pears on several fragments, which helps
to date them, and since no more burials
took place in the catacombs after about
410 A.D., this could be assumed to be
their latest date. The workmanship on the
gold sandwich glasses is not usually of high
artistic merit. A disadvantage of the
technique was that air bubbles might get
between the two layers of glass and
disfigure the design.
tumbler in ‘/.mschengoldglas technique
Bohemia, about 1730. Ht. 89 mm (35 in.)
(See also colour photographs /(j and 14)
The gold sandwich technique is believed
to have been used in Rhenish glass
factories in Roman times. Fragments with
painted decoration have been found in
Cologne, in a style not seen on the glasses
from Rome. A series of Byzantine tiles
dating from somewhere between the 6th
and the 12th centuries A.D. differs in
being made up of fused gold glass covered
with a film of colourless glass. The method
was revived in the 18th century in Ger-
many, the products being called Zwischen-
goldgldser. Gold leaf was applied and
engraved on the outside of a tumbler,
which had previously been ground down
for about three-quarters of its height, a
projecting shoulder being left at the top.
A polygonal bottomless glass was then put
over the gold decoration, fitting neatly to
the shoulder. This outer glass projected a
little below the base of the tumbler, and a
further disc of glass, similarly gold-
engraved, was fixed in the space left.
Obviously, perfect precision was needed
if an airtight fit was to be achieved.
Bohemia, about 1710. Hi. 241 mm (9*5 in.)
Silver leaf as well as gold was used in
Zwischengoldgldser, and additions of ruby,
pink and green transparent lacquers occur
on some of the more elaborate later
examples-. This renewal of the gold sand-
wich glass technique seems to have been
concentrated in Bohemia at one or two
workshops. The best specimens date from
the 1730’s, but less skilled work was done
until about 1755. The glasses were deli-
cately engraved in gold with hunting
scenes, figures of saints and shields of arms,
usually of Bohemian families. That the
artists were aware of their early Christian
predecessors seems apparent from the
motifs used for the base discs of their
tumblers, such as the IHS monogram, and
Christian emblems comparable to those of
the early gold sandwich discs. Views of
monasteries and of local Bohemian saints
are among the decorations, the detail on
the gold leaf being scratched on with a
point. Though tumblers were the com-
monest shape used, other forms are found,
such as the covered goblet illustrated.
iimkik with medallions in TwiuhtWtUfUii
Johann Joseph Mildncr, Lower Austria, 1800
Ht. 102 mm (4 in.)
The gold sandwich glass technique was
also used in a highly personal way by
Johann Joseph Mildner (1763-1808) of
Gutenbrunn in Lower Austria. His finely
decorated gift tumblers have medallion
panels, decorated with red lacquer and
gold leaf in the Zwischengoldglas technique,
let in flush with the surface of the glass in
spaces cut exactly to receive them. Por-
traits, monograms, arms, allegories, land-
scapes, still life pieces and representations
of saints were used by him as motifs.
he inserted in his medallions
miniature portraits painted in colours on
parchment. Sometimes the medallions
were inserted in the bottom of the tumblers
as well as on the sides. A poem might be
scratched on the reverse side of the
medallion. Signed works are known be-
tween 1787 and 1808. The glasses arc
usually cylindrical, and are among the best
work produced in the Kmpire period.
Mildner’s technique continued the tradi-
tion established by the ancient Roman
medallions and the Zwischengoldgldser.
Stevens & Williams, England, beginning of 20th
century. Ht. 220 mm (q in.)
Stevens 6k Williams of Brierley Hill,
England, produced a glassware akin to the
gold sandwich glass technique at the
beginning of this century. John North-
wood II was its inventor, and he developed
it about 1000, calling it ‘Silveria’. It was
made by sandwiching a layer of silver foil
between two layers of clear colourless or
coloured glass. Northwood’s method was
to blow the first bubble of glass to almost
full size before the foil was picked up from
the marver on the bubble. It was then
plunged into a pot of hot metal, which put
a protective film of glass over the foil.
Trails of coloured glass, often transparent
green, were put on the surface somewhat
haphazardly. The original silver lustre is
retained as long as no air gets between the
two layers of glass. Pieces of Silveria are
often marked ‘S’ and ‘W’, and the word
‘England’ or a small fleur de lys may
sometimes appear.
picture in verre eglomise
By Zeuner, Netherlands, late 18th century
Ht. 201 mm (8 in.)
Verre Eglomise: When gold or silver leaf
is fixed to the back of a sheet of colourless
glass and etched with a point, the work
known as ‘verre eglomise’ is produced. This
can be backed with colour, e.g., lacquer or
oil pigments, to show through the areas
where the foil has been scraped away. To
protect the unfired painting and gilding, a
layer of varnish or metal foil or another
sheet of glass can be laid on the back of the
object. The term ‘eglomise’1 is taken from
the name of an 18th-century French
picture-framer called Glomy, who used
the technique extensively. It was also used
by an Amsterdam artist, Zeuner; little is
known of him, apart from his signed work,
though he did visit England in 1778, when
he exhibited a ‘landscape in metals’ at the
Society of Artists of Great Britain. Both
Dutch and English scenes can be found,
usually signed by the artist. Some English
views date to the early years of the 19th
century.
PLATE IN verre eglomise
Kngland, early 19th century
Diam. 219 mm (8-6? in.)
SEGMENT OF DISH WITH GILT DECORATION
Italy, first half of the 16th century
Diam. 191 mm (75 in.)
The pictorial and decorative engraving of
gold leaf on glass has been practised since
before the Roman era, although the name
verre eglomise is fairly modern. Early gold
sandwich glasses can be considered to be
a form of verre eglomise, as can the later
forms of gold-glass, such as the Zwischen-
goldgldser. A variation on the theme was
suggested by Johann Kunckel in his book
Ars Vitraria Experimental!! (1679). In this,
in effect, two beakers were made to fit
exactly together as in the Zwischengold-
glaser, the inner surface of the outer beaker
being painted with delicate veining to
resemble marble. The outer surface of the
inner beaker had gold leaf applied, and was
engraved in the usual manner. When the
two were fitted together, a double effect of
marbling and gilding in the glass could be
achieved. The plate illustrated is a skilful
example of verre eglomise belonging to the
early 19th century.
Gilding on the Outer Surface: Gilding is so
often found in conjunction with enamelling
on glass that it is difficult to separate the
two techniques completely. Both gilt and
enamelled decoration are fired to the glass
in an enameller’s kiln. Islamic artists, who
were such great enamcllers, also produced
gilding on their glasses, though true gild-
ing did not usually appear until after the
fall of Fatimid Dynasty in 1171. It was
during the 12th century that the Egyptian
art of gilding glass was transferred to Syria,
when artists from Egypt took service at the
courts of the rulers of Syria and North-
West Mesopotamia. The Venetians also
notably combined gilding with enamelling
on their glasses, the gilding having a
peculiarly light, soft quality. Occasionally
they used gilding on its own for decoration,
as in the dish illustrated, which has an
inscription appearing through a ground of
light gilding.
Gilding put on the outer surface of the
glass was always in danger of being rubbed
off, and with use many poorly gilded glasses
lost all traces of their original decoration.
Unfired gilt decoration (see next column)
would almost certainly rub off. When gold
in powdered form or as thin gold leaf was
stuck to the glass with an oily or adhesive
medium (as described) it could be fired to
it in an enameller’s kiln. This was a far
more durable way to gild glass, but was
rarely entirely successful. Even the gilding
on 18th-century blue, green and opaque
white Bristol glass, which is notably good,
has suffered a little with the passage of
time. The best-known motifs on Bristol
glass are the gilt fret border as on the dark
blue wine-glass cooler illustrated, and a
chain and label inscribed with the names
of drinks, such as Shrub, Rum, Hollands,
Gin and Brandy which are found on many
decanters; the stoppers of the decanters
often bore the initial of the drinks con-
tained.
DSCANTO WITH ENGRAVED AND GII.T DECORATION
France, end ol the 18th century
Ht. 327 mm (12-88 in.)
A somewhat simplified description of the
process of gilding was given first by
Haudicquer de Blancourt in his De F Art
de la Verrerie (1679). The second and more-
convincing method he described involved
painting the surface of the glass with gum-
water, applying gold leaf and washing the
leaf over with a solution of borax. Glass
ground to an impalpable powder was then
sprinkled over the borax, and the vessel
was put into the furnace and fired. Unfired
gilding was described by an English author
in 1735. A combination of chalk, red-lead
and linseed oil was laid on the glass, gold
leaf was applied and, when the solution
had dried, was polished. Dr. W. Lewis,
writing in 1763, recommended a solution
of amber combined with oil of turpentine
and a small amount of white lead and
minium. When this varnish had been
painted on the glass the gold leaf was
applied, the varnish allowed to dry, and
then the gold decoration was polished.
EWER IN BLUE GI.ASS WITH GII.T DECORATION
India, 18th century A.D. Ht. 280 mm (11 in.)
Unfired gilding could never match the
toughness of gilding which was burned
into the surface of the glass. For this, gold
leaf alone could be applied, or a flux could
be used with it. Gold leaf on its own, as
described by Blancourt, demanded an
extreme nicety in the firing of the glass.
When a flux was used under the gold leaf,
the firing was not nearly so difficult, but
the gilding tended to stand out from the
surface of the glass. Instead of gold leaf, a
precipitate of gold could be mixed with the
flux and fired, but the brightness of the
gilding suffered. For polishing the gold,
wolf, bear or hog’s tooth, or polished agate
and Venetian soap and water, were recom-
mended in an 18th-century manuscript.
Among the striking glassware produced in
India between the late 17th and the 19th
centuries were examples of fine gilding.
The glass illustrated is characteristic of the
Mughal industry, the poppy sprays being
a motif much used during the reign of
Shah Jahan (1627-58) and later.
VASE WITH COVER WITH ENGRAVED
DECORATION
Granja de San lldefonso, Spain, second half of
the 18th century. Hi. 508 mm (20 in.)
{See also colour photographs 1$ and 2;)
This vase is an example of the fired gilding
practised at the Spanish royal glass factory
near the palace of La Granja de San
lldefonso, near Segovia. Spain wished to
rival the French and German glass indus-
tries, and thus encouraged foreign work-
men to establish glass-houses from the late
17th century. There was little success until
Juan Goyeneche, with the help of foreign
workmen, managed to produce a good-
quality clear colourless glass. Encouraged
by Queen Isabella, Buenaventura Sit, one
of Goyeneche’s workmen, set up a glass-
house in 1728 near the palace of La Granja,
where he specialised in mirrors and vessels
in the Catalan tradition. First a French-
man, then a Swede, took charge of hollow-
ware manufacture, until 1768, when a
German, Sigismund Brun, took over the
direction of the factory, introducing fired
gilding and cut and engraved decoration.
After a period of expensive mismanage-
ment, the factory passed in 1829 into
private hands, and thenceforward made
only common glass.

LONG AND LIGHT EARRINGS
Right: A pair of gold repousse and turquoise pendent earrings, circa 1840. Turquoise and carbuncles in association with gold repousse work were particularly favoured at the time.
Below: A portrait miniature of a lady, by Leopold Grosz (or Gross), circa 183o. Note the fashionable coiffure with hair arranged in three clusters of curls expanding sideways, counterbalanced by cannetille earrings en girandole.
Bottom: Two pairs of repousse gold earrings, circa 1840, one with carbuncle the other with polychrome enamel.
Left and below: Four pairs of pendent earrings, set with citrines and pink topazes, circa 1835, characterized by the combination of cannetille and repousse work which marks the transition between the two goldsmith techniques used in this type of earring.
Typically all the earrings illustrated on these pages are long, light, set with semiprecious gemstones or decorated with polychrome enamels and of moderate intrinsic value.
Left: Three pairs of pendent earrings circa
I 870-8o, English, set with diamonds or pearl and diamonds. The designs, though more rigid and stiff, are close to the contemporary French examples illustrated above, but their fluttering ribbons and garland motifs are replaced by plain lines of diamonds.
THE 1860s AND 1870s: BIZARRE VARIETY
In the i86os and 187os earrings became extremely popular, and the fashionable lady would suspend virtually anything from her ears providing it was decorative. Objects of common use such as baskets of flowers or hammers, animals and archaeologically
A parure of emerald, pearl and diamond earrings and matching necklace, with the relevant design, commissioned by Napoleon III and Eugenie from the Parisian jeweller Mellerio in 1863 as a wedding gift to Mar6chal Canrobert. The impact of these earrings relies on the use of important gemstones such as the large cabochon emerald drops rather than the explicit archaeological motifs, though the Greek key pattern and the extensive use of yellow gold even for the setting of the diamonds betrays an archaeological interest. Emeralds were the favourite coloured gemstones of the Empress Eugenie and because of this became one of the most popular gemstones of the time.
WAFER-THIN: EARRINGS OF THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
Right: A portrait of Maria de la Conception Rodriguez of Granada, painted by Jose Gil in 1816. Her earrings, typical of the early i 9th century, are two circular gold plaques set with corals connected by fine chains. Their linearity and two-dimensional quality is well suited to the low d6collet6 and contemporary hairstyle of Classical inspiration.
Above left: A diamond pendent earring, early
i 9th century, showing how the structure of the contemporary gold earrings made of articulated plaques was rendered, almost unaltered, in lavish gemstones such as diamonds.
Above right: Pair of gold earrings, early i 9th century, made of several paper-thin gold plaques of different shapes connected by lateral chains.
Above left: Pair of gold earrings, early i 9th century. Although quite long, these earrings are comfortable to wear because they are cut out of very thin and light gold sheet and not set with gemstones.
Above right: A pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings, probably French, early T 9th century, decorated with portrait miniatures of a man and his wife. Though the design is typical of the
time, this pair presents unusual sentimental imagery: a dove, a pair of flaming hearts, the inscription ‘Fidel’ and forget-me-nots.
TORPEDO-SHAPED DROPS OF THE
1830s AND 1840s
Opposite and below: Three pairs of gold, chalcedony and gem-set pendent earrings, each accompanied by a typical Maltese cross pendant en suite, circa 1830. Contemporary fashion encouraged the use of such elongated drops decorated with applied gold floral motifs, often set with turquoises or other coloured gemstones. They were carved in white or stained chalcedony, usually blue or green.
Right and far right: Two examples of repouss~ gold earrings of elongated drop design, circa 1840, the first applied with turquoise florets, the second decorated with quatrefoil motifs suspended from a shell-shaped surmount. Earrings of this type were usually made of thin foils of metal decorated en repousse and extremely long (i0-12 ems). Their size and lightness were dictated by fashion and economic factors. The exaggerated horizontal lines of dress and hairstyle needed to be offset by long pendants, while at the same time the scarcity of precious metal encouraged the use of wafer-thin foil of embossed gold.
Below centre: A gold and gem-set torpedo-shaped earring, circa 1835, combining embossed and cannetille decoration.
FROM CANNETILLE TO REPOUSSE
Left: Two gold cannetille, diamond and gem-set parures, English, circa T 830. In both cases the parures include a pair of earrings set with rubies and emeralds respectively. Though the design is that of the traditional girandole, the setting in cannetille is typical of the time, the design of the earrings matching those of the necklace
pendants. On the Continent canetille earrings were mainly set with semiprecious stones such as foiled topazes, amethysts and citrines. In England more expensive gemstones such as emeralds, diamonds and rubies were often used.
Right: An exceptional pair of pendent earrings set with aquamarines within repouss~ gold borders, circa 1835. These earrings are typical of the time for their length (12 CMS approximately), for their lightness (15 grams) and for the choice of the stones, two large kite-shaped aquamarines. The lightness of the mount makes them comfortable to wear in spite of their size. Gold repouss~ work replaced cannetille because it was cheaper to manufacture and used small quantities of precious metal.
EGYPTIAN AND CLASSICAL STYLE
Above: An impressive pair of gold earrings and matching necklace, circa I 870. The dominating element of these jewels is the pharaoh mask, so the Egyptian inspiration is sufficiently obvious. Nonetheless the surmount is Classical Greek, a rosette; I 9th-century revivalism was often the result of such combination of elements deriving from different cultures and periods.
Opposite:
A group of Classical revival earrings, circa 1865. Top left: laurel leaf suspended from an Athenian owl surmount. Top right: A pair of gold rams’ head earrings, deriving its design from Greek examples of the late Classical period, the antique counterparts usually consist of a tapered hoop to be inserted into the earlobe terminating with a rams’ head motif, in this case the rams’ head is suspended from a rosette surmount. Below left: A pair of gold and cornelian intaglio earrings, by Castellani, incorporating original Roman intaglios that depict a trophy of arms and a hunting scene. Below right: A pair of gold pendent earrings, by Ernesto Pierret, each designed as a triangular panel decorated with beaded work and corded wire typical of Greek and Etruscan goldsmithwork, flanked by baton motifs with spherical drop terminals.
Opposite: Two pairs of Roman earrings, circa 1870- The first by Civilotti of Rome, combines elements from various sources. The amphora motifs in matt gold find precise counterparts in Greek and Etruscan examples, the gold mosaic plaque with its Christian symbolism is reminiscent of Byzantine mosaics, while the lilies of the circular surmounts belong unmistakably to the i 9th century. The second pair, of gold and Roman mosaic, carry lozenge-shaped plaques with portraits of Sabina and Maximus Caesar. Note in this case the contrast between the sober, classical lines of the pendant and the frivolous design of the floral surmount.
Above: A pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings, circa 1870, in the shape of stylized amphorae. The design has no specific counterpart in Antiquity but is a pastiche of various elements. The amphora motif derives from a popular type of Hellenistic earring; the granulation and corded wire decoration from Greek and Etruscan tradition; and the stylized papyri and palmettos in bright contrasting colours are Egyptian.
Left: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic earrings, circa 1870, in the shape of ewers. The gold chains with pearl terminals are meant to simulate water being poured out — an amusing i 9th-century touch not to be found in Antiquity.
A RANGE OF REVIVALS: THE 1870s
Many Classical designs took the amphora as their model, in, for instance,
tortoiseshell (right) or lapis lazuli (below right). Rams’ heads feature as a pair of gold earrings (below).
Above: Gold and enamel a baule earrings in the Etruscan tradition, seen in front, back and side views. Right top left to bottom right: Hardstonc maenad heads set in elaborate gold and enamel mounts; gold rosette; Wedgwood jasper-ware drops decorated with a white figurative frieze on a blue ground; two earrings based on amphorae in matt gold; and finally a pair of Japanese-influenced gold and polychrome enamel earrings designed as fans on screens.
LIGHTHEARTED EARRINGS OF THE 1860s AND 1870s
Common features of these earrings are a playful naturalistic inspiration, the use of relatively inexpensive material such as gold, enamel, ivory and turquoises, and the combination of bright colours. They are in line with the concept of novelty jewellery, more a fashion accessory —hence the low value of the materials — than precious heirlooms to be treasured.
Left-hand column
Above: A pair of gold and turquoise pendent earrings in the shape of bulrush sprays, the heads pave-set with turquoises. English, circa i 86o.
Below: A pair of gold and enamel earrings, French, circa 18 70, designed as birds nesting in bulrushes.
Centre column
Above: A pair of gold and tinted intaglio earrings, English, circa 1870, depicting goldfish in round bowls.
Middle: A pair of three-coloured gold and enamel earrings, probably French, circa 1860, designed as coiled snakes supporting bunches of grapes.
Below: A pair of gold and enamel earrings, English, circa 1870, in the form of frogs amongst bulrushes in a triangular frame of twigs.
Right-hand column
Above: A pair of gold and tinted ivory earrings, English, circa 1860, designed as cascades of fuchsia blossom carved in tinted pink ivory.
Below: A pair of silver-gilt and turquoise earrings in the form of nesting birds pave-set with turquoises, the wire-work nests containing pearl eggs, French, 18.50-60.
FASHIONS OF THE 1870s
Above: Five designs for earrings from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. Their variety is a reflection of the eclecticism of contemporary jewellery design.
Noticeable, however, is the persistence of motifs of archaeological inspiration such
as the amphora-shaped drops, the cameo supporting a trophy of love and stylized papyri.
Opposite: Among the earrings of naturalistic inspiration fashionable in the I 870s, those designed as acorns found great favour throughout Europe. In Mellerio’s archive are two variations of the same design (below), while similar earrings with a matching pendant are advertised in a contemporary issue of the magazine La Femme et la Famille.
Right: Stylized papyri also form the surmount of this English gold and turquoise earring.
RETURN TO NATURE
During the i 86os women suspended all sorts of ornaments from their ears, from delicate and appealing bouquets of flowers to rather repulsive Brazilian beetles.
Far left: Two pairs of Italian gold earrings, i 86os. The upper pair, set with pearls, has rather disturbing hands supporting a basket of fruits. The lower pair consists of acorns on a two-oak-leaves surmount.
Left: A pair of gold and stained ivory earrings designed as cascading fuchsia blossoms, English, 18 6os.
Above: A pair of Brazilian beetle earrings, English, i 86os. The improved communication with South America prompted the introduction of unusual materials such as Brazilian beetles, whose hard, brilliant and iridescent green shell could be mounted as a gemstone.
EROS, AMPHORAE AND OIL LAMPS
Variations of amphora- and lamp-shaped earrings, circa 1870. Left: A mask of a Maenad supports an amphora carved in lava from Vesuvius, and a pair of gold, enamel and pearl earrings in the shape of oil lamps, by Carlo Giuliano, circa ‘865, modelled on lamps used for votive offerings. Below: a pair of gold earrings designed as amphorae suspended from fine chains; a gold ewer-shaped earring decorated with corded wire and granulation; and a seed pearl, gold and banded agate earring designed as an amphora on a disc surmount, by Carlo Giuliano, bearing the maker’s mark C.G. and the retailer’s mark HR for Hunt and Roskell of London
Eros, or Cupid, a recurrent figure in Hellenistic earrings, appeared frequently, involved in various activities, in earrings of the 18 6os and 18 70s. In two examples (above right) he is riding a gold dove decorated with corded wire and granulation simulating the plumage; the lower pair retains the original fitting, very close in design to the Antique prototype, while the upper is a later alteration.
In a pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings by Eugene Fontenay, circa 1870 (above), Eros is depicted carrying wine jugs on painted enamel plaques imitating Roman wall paintings, while in a pair of gold, seed pearl and enamel earrings by Carlo Giuliano, last quarter of the i 9th century (bottom right) he is playing the lyre and holding a mirror, on circular enamelled plaques.
Left andfar left: Two pairs of earrings set with cameos carved respectively in lava and banded agate, circa 1870.
RENAISSANCE REVIVAL
A pair of gold and polychrome earrings, by Carlo Giuliano, circa 1865, designed as a stork devouring a snake. The subject derives from a Renaissance emblem — the soul overcoming carnal pleasures — and the interest in the sculptural effect from Renaissance jewellery.
Above: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic earrings and matching brooch/pendant, the surmounts of the earrings depicting red, green and white scarabs supporting three elongated drops.
Left: A gold and Roman mosaic pendent earring, the circular surmount decorated with a dolphin and supporting an elaborate drop decorated with the figure of Cupid.
ROMAN AND FLORENTINE MOSAICS OF THE 1870s
Roman and Florentine mosaics, widely exploited in jewellery at the beginning of the i 9th century, came back in great favour in the late i 86os. Roman micromosaic technique was especially favoured, not only because it was suited to render motifs of archaeological
inspiration but also because its technique derived from Antiquity. This consisted in arranging minute coloured glass paste tessarae within hardstone, glass or gold borders.
Left: Gold earrings of archaeological design decorated with Roman mosaic plaques of winged putti, and a brooch/pendant showing a Raphael tondo.
Below left: A pair of Florentine mosaic earrings set with onyx and coloured stones. Florentine mosaic consisted of an inlay of differently coloured hard and semiprecious stones arranged in naturalistic patterns.
Below centre: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic half-hoop earrings in Egyptian revival style. Note the scarab, similar to the example illustrated on the opposite page.
Below right: A Roman mosaic earring of floral design.
SOUVENIR EARRINGS
Since the beginning of the century earrings and other jewels set with Roman mosaic plaques depicting architectural views of Rome or scenes from the Campagna had been popular souvenirs to take back home. Early i 9th-century earrings are characterized by a very simple and linear design. They usually consist of an oval surmount supporting a pear-shaped drop or an oval plaque connected by fine chains. The mosaics are of a high quality, consisting of very small tessarae where the colours are graduated in a very subtle manner giving the illusion of a miniature painting. A good example of this is the pair of earrings (left) set with four mosaic plaques of famous views of Rome including the Pyramid of Cestius and the Columns of Trajan and Antoninus.
Later examples of the 18 6os and 18 70S tend to be more elaborate in design, adapting shapes and decorations to contemporary trends. The quality of the mosaics though, is coarser, a consequence of the increased demand. The earrings and matching pendant (right) with mosaic plaques depicting peasant women of the Campagna in the typical ciociara costume are good examples of the time; their Roman origin is confirmed by the city’s gold hallmark. Note the ubiquitous Egyptian scarab motif on the surmount and the coarse tessarae.
Star motifs first appeared in the late i 86os as an inlaid central decorative motif of earrings set with large cabochon gemstones such as amethysts and carbuncles or enamel bosses as the example illustrated here in black enamel and half pearls (far left). Later six-, eight-, twelve-pointed stars, or more, became extremely popular, often accompanied by a matching pendant and set for instance, with pearls (left).
The popularity of knife-wire setting and the fashion for light and less symmetrical shapes prompted, in the late 18 8os and i 89os, the development of shooting stars and comets.
Opposite centre and far left below:
Numerous points alternate with weightless knife-wires set with diamonds. Left: A pear-shaped drop terminating with a graduated fringe. Above: Set of twelve-pointed star earrings and matching pendant set with pale opals.
Top right: Designs by Mellerio for two variations of star-shaped pendent earrings, part of a parure commissioned by Queen Isabella II of Spain.
INNOVATION AND TRADITION:
FRENCH EARRINGS OF THE 1870s AND 1880s
Two pages of earring designs in pencil and gouache of the late 1870s and early i 88os from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. They range from naturalistic floral creations to pendeloques and girandoles in the i Sth-century tradition, mainly set with pearls and diamonds, together with amusing arrows which appear to pierce the ear, in the style of novelty jewellery. The eclecticism of the sources of inspiration is especially evident on the right-hand page, where Classical archaeology with a typical Greek key pattern, naturalism with floral motifs, Persian and Northern African art with botch and crescent hoops co-exist.
Above: A collection of gold and gem-set earrings spanning the years from 1850 to the 1870s. Noticeable are the small compact earrings of the I 850s designed as clusters of foliate motifs or coiled ribbons; the long pointed drops of the 18 6os in archaeological revival style; the oval panels star-set with half pearls of the early I 87os, and the tiger’s claw earrings fringed by gold drops of the I 870s, brought back from India as souvenirs to commemorate hunting expeditions.
Left: A page of earring drawings from Cartier’s archive in Paris, dated from March 1874 to May 1874, illustrating some of the great number of shapes, both long and short, fashionable at the time.
FRINGED EARRINGS OF THE 1870s
One of the most distinctive forms of earring in the
18 70s consisted of a circular, oval or otherwise shaped panel variously decorated with enamel, gemstones or chased gold, supporting a graduated fringe of articulated pointed drops. The type was particularly fashionable in England where the favourite surmounts for the tagged drops were oval carbuncles (below), or enamel plaques star-set at the centre with various gemstones (opposite). Fringe or tassel earrings with matching pendants were popular throughout Europe as testified by the archival records of the German jeweller Kreuter dating from 1868 to 1872 (right). More unusual surmounts were occasionally exploited, such as the trapeze-shaped Wedgwood jasper-ware plaque (opposite lower right).
CASCADES OF FLOWERS
Among the plethora of 1870s earrings those designed as cascades of flowers, flowerhead clusters with pampille decorations or sprays of leaves and flowers were particularly favoured by a more conservative public.
Far left, top: A pencil and gouache drawing by Mellerio depicting a flower spray earring. It is interesting to note how the design includes the ear to show precisely how the earring should be positioned on it. Beneath it are two ink designs by Mellerio in the form of flowers with
cascading stamens.
Left: Two ink drawings by the German jeweller Kreuter of 1873, depicting earrings in the shape of cascades of flowerheads and leaves.
Lower left: A gold and turquoise demi-parure comprising a pair of fuchsia earrings and a matching pendant. Note the naturalistic rendering of the blossoms and the use of calibr~- cut turquoises. Though turquoise had been a popular stone for many decades it is only in the
i 870s that it began to be cut en calibre in order to fit the shape of the mount.
Opposite: English diamond-set examples belonging to the same type as those by Kreuter.
BEETLES AND BACCHUS
A gold and Brazilian beetle demi-parure comprising a necklace and a pair of pendent earrings of modified girandole design, probably English, circa 18 70. In this case a ‘novelty’ material — the Brazilian beetles — is combined with an overall archaeological design in a bizarre and unconventional way. The iridescent green beetles are turned into miniature tortoises by the addition of feet, head and tail in gold; on the earrings they are clustered in groups of four.
ARTISTRY OF LALIQUE
Right: A pair of opal, enamel and gold pendent earrings, by Rene Lalique, French, circa I goo, in their original case. The fluid line, the thistle motif, the choice of the opal as a gemstone and the opalescent enamel epitomizes Art Nouveau jewellery. Though earrings continued to be worn at this time, they were not a particularly prominent ornament so the large proportions of this pair of Lalique earrings are an exception rather than the rule. Even within Lalique’s unconventional and daring production of jewellery, they may be regarded as a rarity. The back view (bottom) shows the unusual clip fitting which anticipates the fashionable clips of the thirties.
Upper left: A collection of very simple and relatively small earrings typical of late i gth century and of the very beginning of the loth century. From left to right: A peridot and diamond cluster earring, the large peridot claw-set at the centre; a diamond earring simply claw set with a brilliant-cut stone; a carbuncle (cabochon almandine garnet) and rose diamond cluster earring, probably by Boucheron; a diamond earring designed as a circular cluster of table-cut stones.

THE TRIUMPH OF THE GIRANDOLE
The other most characteristic form of earring of the i 8th century was the girandole, which was fashionable throughout the whole of Europe. In the early
j 8th century it tended to have a horizontal shape, the three drops more or less of the same size and at the same level, and the central motif clearly defined and simple in design. Later it became more vertical in emphasis with a longer and larger central drop and a more elaborate central motif.
Above and opposite right: Late i 8th-century girandole earrings from Spain, set with emeralds and diamonds, a characteristic feature of Spanish jewellery. The elaborate central motif combines leaves and spray of flowers.
Centre top: French, circa I 76os, set with foiled rubies and diamonds, the drops and the central motif articulated. The combination of rubies and diamonds and the elaborate bow motif place it in the second half of the century.
Middle: English, second half of the T 8th century, set with foiled garnets. Note the rather stiff design and the clearly defined ribbon motif. The colour of the garnets is enhanced by bright pink foiling.
Bottom: Portuguese, circa 1750, set with foiled topazes. The choice of the gemstones — topazes from Brazil, then a colony of Portugal — and the linear and flat design are typical of Portuguese jewellery.
THE ELEGANT PENDELOQUE
A collection of late i 8th-century silver and diamond pendeloque earrings. These examples show some of the many variations of the pendeloque design, from the cluster, ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop (right and opposite above) to the articulated and elaborate swing centre (centre and opposite below). Note the use of silver as setting metal to complement the whiteness of diamonds. As is normal at this time, all gemstones are mounted in closed settings.
IBERIAN STYLE
Right: A gold and hessonite garnet earring, Catalan, probably early i 9th century. The striking design is a development of the traditional pendeloque design with a cluster surmount, an elaborate floral spray centre and an elongated pear-shaped drop. Many examples are extremely long and heavy, requiring special mounts to support their weight.
Opposite right: A collection of i 8th- and i 9th-century gold earrings, Portuguese and Spanish. These earrings exemplify the persistence, in the Iberian peninsula, of the pendeloque motif based on
surmount, ribbon bow and elongated drop. The great variety of design includes the traditional pendeloque conceived as a cluster surmount set with emeralds or rose diamonds supporting a bow and a pear-shaped drop; the ‘Brincos a Rainha’ with its wide, almost circular, drop with swing centre, entirely pierced in high carat gold; the elongated spindle-shaped earrings chased in gold with scroll motifs known as ‘Fuso’, and the bow pendants (centre of page).
Detail of a portrait of Mary, Countess of Macclesfield, by Francis Coates, exhibited at the Society of Artists in 1763 and much admired by Horace Walpole. The Countess is wearing fashionable diamond girandole earrings.
REFINEMENTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Opposite far left: A Portuguese silver and white topaz earring of girandole design, first half of the i 8th century, and (below) front and back view of a diamond girandole earring mounted in silver. The back view shows three typical features of the girandole: the closed setting of the stones; the articulated and detachable drops that allow the earring to be worn in a reduced form; and the additional hoop, through which a ribbon was threaded and secured to the hair.
This page:
Illustrations from 18th-century literature on earrings. Top: An extract from the ‘Discours Preliminaire’ of the Recueil des Dessins by A. Duflos, 1744, where the author expresses his concern about the excessive weight and elaborate design of girandole earrings. Above, left to right: French engraved designs of two girandole earrings and one pendeloque earring by F. LeFebvre (active circa 1635-57); a page of French engraved designs for six girandoles by Pouget, 1762; six engraved designs for pendeloques and girandoles by J. Quien, 1710, published posthumously in London in 1762; and two designs for a two-stone or double-cluster earring, by Duflos, 1744, a fashionable form that cannot be classified as either girandole or pendeloque.
Centre left: A page of French designs by Maria,
175 1-70, engraved by Babel, illustrating fashionable pendeloques and girandoles.
Below left: Four engraved designs for pendeloque and girandole earrings, by an anonymous Italian, circa 1770.
THE PENDELOQUE: Centre right: An unusual and colourful pair of earrings, late T 8th century, set with
THEME AND VARIATIONS cornelian plaques within diamond borders.
Right: A pair of diamond pendent earrings, Russian, mid-i 8th century. The interest in large cushion-shaped brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in closed silver settings is a typical i 8th-century feature.
Opposite: Four pairs of pendeloque earrings mounted in silver or gold and silver with colourless gemstones such as white topazes and rock crystal.
Opposite far right: A pair of diamond pendeloque earrings, English, late i 8th century. Note the large rose diamonds in silver closed settings and the rather severe design typical of many English creations of the time. And (bottom far right) a pair of topaz pendeloque earrings and a matching devant de corsage, Portuguese, mid-i 8th century, interesting for its combination of light yellow and foiled orange stones.
Below: A collection of English diamond jewellery, late i 8th century, comprising typical pendeloque earrings and a flowerhead dress ornament.
OUT OF THE MAINSTREAM
Below: A mid i 9th-century portrait by Joaquin Argasot y Juan of a Spanish lady wearing a pair of large gold and gem-set earrings of girandole inspiration, proving how long earrings of this type continued to be popular in the Iberian Peninsula. Their size explains why additional fittings were required.
Right: Silver and rose diamond pendeloque earrings, probably Flemish; and gold Iberian earrings set with topazes, of modified girandole design, similar to those in the portrait above.
Opposite, top left to bottom right: Gold and gem-set Spanish earrings, a variation of the Catalan type but with a much more slender outline; Catalan earrings; gold Iberian earrings set with emeralds; and garnet Catalan earrings. All on this page late i 8th/early i 9th century.
PEARLS, GEMS AND GLASS
Below: A pair of seed pearl and ruby girandole earrings, Southern Italian, mid-18th century. The use of minute seed pearls threaded on a filigree structure is a typical feature of many Southern Italian and Adriatic jewels of low intrinsic value. Even so the design presents the most typical features of the girandole: cluster surmount, bow and detachable drops.
Opposite: A pair of gilt-metal and glass girandole earrings, probably Italian mid- i 8th century, using copper coloured aventurine glass with gold spangles cut and faceted as if it were a precious stone. Glass paste of various colours was frequently cut and set in i 8th= centuryday jewellery, and even aristocratic ladies who owned precious jewels did not disdain to wear it. The smaller pictures show two pairs of Iberian earrings set respectively with rose diamonds and emeralds, late i 8th century. One is modelled on the traditional girandole, the other on the pendeloque form, which in this region retained their popularity well into the 19th century.
A pair of spectacular Southern Italian gold and seed pearl pendent earrings, late i 8th century. Although this particular type seems to be confined to Southern Italy and the Adriatic regions, its structure conforms to the contemporary pendeloque design. The use of seed pearls had been a typical feature of jewels of this area since the I 7th century, providing an extremely successful and decorative alternative to jewels set with precious gemstones.

By the beginning of the 18th century earrings had become an essential form The girandole of adornment.
The girandole, first seen around the middle of the 17th century, remained the most popular type of earring. As we have seen, it consisted of a surmount, usually a bow motif, with three pear-shaped drops, the larger one at the centre, suspended from a hook. The hook allowed the drops to be detached, so that the surmount could be worn on its own when occasion required it.
There are several explanations for the popularity of the girandole. The first has to do with fashion in clothes and hair. During the 18th century hair was worn gathered up on the head away from the face, leaving the ears uncovered; and the low cut of dresses for formal occasions left the area around the neck and ears perfectly suited for adornment with earrings. Secondly, earrings and particularly girandoles exploited the qualities of faceted stones, especially diamonds, which had become plentiful after their discovery in Brazil in 1723; before that the supply had been limited to the mines of Golconda in India. Also significant was the improvement in techniques for cutting diamonds: around 1700 it is thought that the Venetian Vincenzo Peruzzi devised the brilliant-cut, a cut that enhanced the optical properties of diamonds, enabling the stone to reflect light and sparkle at its best. The new brilliant-cut diamonds were particularly successful when mounted on girandole earrings with the stones hanging freely on both sides of the face and catching the light. Thirdly, improved domestic candles meant that more social occasions could be held at night, and in these circumstances sparkling diamond-set jewels and especially girandoles were particularly effective. Until the mid-18th century, jewellery was set solely with diamonds. For formal evening occasions, diamond girandole earrings were all the rage, while during the day girandoles set with more sober semiprecious stones such as garnets, cornelians, pearls, aventurine glass and pastes were preferred. For the first time in the history of jewellery a differentiation was made between day-time and night-time jewels, a distinction which remains to this day.
The girandole remained the favoured type of earring throughout the 18th century and in general terms its basic elements — the bow surmount and drops, the emphasis on width rather than length and the practice of wearing matching bodice ornaments called sevignes — are features which had been common since the 17th century. There are, however, certain small differences. The early 18th-century girandole may be distinguished from its 17th-century counterpart mainly by its emphasis on the faceted stones rather than on the setting and enamel-work; in the 17th century the setting was decorated at the front and back with polychrome enamels and engravings, but towards the end of that century enamel-work and engraving were confined to the back and disappeared completely at the beginning of the 18th.
Elements remaining from the 17th century include the rather stiff design with the clearly defined bow and drops as separate units, and the pronounced horizontal de-Engraved design of the ‘Principes de Girandoles’ by L. Van der Cruycen, 1770, showing the proportions of a girandole earring.
Engraved designs for three pearl girandole earrings by L. Van der Cruycen, 177o. The central motifs are flower sprays.
velopment, stressing width rather than length. Such features are clearly visible in the designs engraved by Quien dated 1710 and published posthumously in London in 1762, especially the stiffness of the design, the drops treated as separate elements, the horizontality and the interest in the faceted stone.
Girandoles were popular throughout Europe at the beginning of the i 8th century, but there are small differences which betray their country of origin. In France they were set entirely with diamonds and were characterized by a sense of movement and sculptural quality. In Spain they were sturdier and set typically with a combination of emeralds and diamonds, a fact explained by the relatively easy supply of emeralds from mines in Colombia, which belonged to Spain. Portuguese girandoles were characterized by simple and flat lines and were usually set with topazes and chrysoberyls from Brazil, then a Portuguese colony. In the Adriatic regions and especially Southern Italy girandoles were given bold outlines and were frequently set with seed pearls as opposed to gemstones.
Girandoles of the second half of the 18th century show some slight changes. In France, particularly, they were no longer set only with diamonds but with a combination of diamonds and coloured gemstones such as rubies. Secondly, they gradually develop a more vertical outline with a more elongated central drop, noticeable in the Italian designs of circa 177o and exemplified by the proportions set out in the Principes de Giraindoles designed and engraved by Van der Cruycen in 1770. And thirdly, the basic bow surmount is frequently replaced by a more complex arrangement, for example the combination of ribbon bow and flower spray motif seen in the ruby and diamond girandoles and in Pouget’s designs for girandoles, dated 1762. One of his pages, for instance, shows six different designs for girandoles. The four set with pearls display intricate motifs in the centre other than bows: a floral motif, two hearts, paired doves and a trophy of love with two hearts and arrows. The characteristic intricacy of the central element is evident also in the emerald and diamond examples from Spain; the centre in the form of a flowerhead cluster is set with a large emerald in a border of rose diamonds framed by diamond-set foliate spray motifs. The other typical feature of late i 8th-century girandoles is the working together of the surmount and drops into much more of an ensemble, compared to the early girandoles where they are treated as separate units.
Most girandoles were quite large, and weight was an important aspect which should not be overlooked. It depended on two features, the size of the earring and the setting of the stones. Gemstones were commonly mounted in closed settings with collets closed at the back, which were lined with coloured foils to enhance the colour of the stones and improve the evenness of colour; in the case of diamonds, foils gave a subtle hue to the stones. Gold was used to set coloured stones while silver was normally used to set diamonds, as it suited their whiteness. So much metal was used in the setting that the earrings were inevitably very heavy, something which is stressed by the designer and engraver Augustin Duflos in the ‘Discours Preliminere’ to his
P 56 Recueil des Dessins, published in 1744. The need to alleviate the weight of girandole earrings led to the introduction of a special fitting, consisting of penannular wire hinged on one side to be inserted from back to front into the pierced earlobe. An additional loop soldered off-centre at the top held a ribbon secured to the hair, taking some of the weight off the ears. The Spanish emerald and diamond girandoles illustrated here are approximately 39 grams; today an average of about 22 grams per earring is reckoned to be as heavy as a woman can comfortably wear.
Tolerance of heavy earrings depends, of course, on how long they are worn, how much movement is involved and how the weight is distributed. When the weight of a long earring is concentrated in a small area, it will feel much heavier than when the
P 57 same weight is spread over a larger surface, as in the case of a disc. Duflos mentions this problem of weight. ‘Ladies’, he says, ‘are the principal objects of the Jeweller’s Art, who mainly devotes his work to them. If this work, by chance, falls under their hands, it might perhaps bring them back to noble and simple taste, better suited in differentiating them and in showing their natural graces than the glittering display that has been favoured for some time. Then they will reduce, by their own accord, the enormous size of Flowers and Girandole Earrings, which tires the ears and they will prefer beautiful diamonds, although smaller in size, to a disorderly cluster of small stones which add up to a lot of weight and are ill suited.’
The pendeloque
Another type of earring which became popular in the second half of the i 8th century,
P. 52, 53 although it was well established fifty years earlier, was the pendeloque. Its design is
characterized by a marquise-shaped surmount supporting a central ribbon bow motif
and an elongated drop of a design similar to the surmount, frequently decorated with
P. 57 a swing centre. Variations include one model which has a more elaborate central sec-
tion with a combination of bow and floral spray motifs, and pear-shaped drops. The
pendeloque seems to have come into fashion because its elongated outline counter-balanced the extreme height of hairstyles around the 1770s. This style reached its peak among the upper classes in 1778. A pad made of wool, hemp and wire was placed on the head and either natural or horse hair with pomade and powder was stretched over. They must have been extremely uncomfortable and unhygienic, since they were often kept in place for weeks at a time, becoming breeding grounds for lice and fleas; furthermore, they were highly impractical, obstructing one’s view and making it difficult to fit into a coach. Caricaturists showed servants employed to hold up the weight of the hair, or attending to their mistress’s hair from ladders, and ladies travelling in carriages with the roof opened up for the high coiffures to stick out. But comfort was not the main concern of the fashionable lady; she delighted in the way the sweeping high line of her hair was perfectly counterbalanced by the elongated drops of her pendeloque earrings.
Most of the pendeloques were set with diamonds but few have survived, since the settings were melted down and the stones reset. The great majority of extant examples are set with colourless pastes or crystals such as white topazes and rock crystal imitating diamonds. The interest in imitation diamonds is typical of the 18th century; and paste jewellery of this period can be considered the forerunner of modern luxury costume jewellery. Another favourite type of pendeloque besides those set with dia-P 49 monds or pastes is the one with a pear-shaped pearl drop usually set as a swing centre in a diamond-set frame. In design books one frequently finds variations of girandoles
P 57 and pendeloques illustrated together. In those of Quien (dated 1710) and Saint (dated 1759), there are engravings of three variations of girandoles and six slightly differing pendeloques all on the same page. Similarly, in the designs of Maria, active 1751-70, eight variations of girandoles and three pendeloques are depicted.
Pendeloques were set in much the same way as girandoles with the stones mounted in closed collets, but they were lighter, having a single drop from the bow surmount instead of three. This explains why one frequently finds a different fitting; instead of the hook with additional loop to alleviate the weight, there is a plain long S-shaped wire hook soldered to the surmount of the earrings. This is clearly depicted in some coloured designs of pendeloques (1760-70) by an anonymous Italian jeweller, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
The ‘two-stone’ earring
Another popular mid to late 18th-century earring is the type known as the ‘two-stone’ earring. This consists of two large oval faceted gemstones, the larger one on top, with the plane joining the two embellished with various decorative motifs. The simplest version of this decoration comprises just two small lozenge-shaped stones filling in the gaps at the sides where the two larger stones meet; the more elaborate type, as seen in Duflos’ engraved designs of 1744, presents lateral floral and foliate spray motifs. This type of earring was suited for the display of large and important stones, especially diamonds, but hardly any examples have survived, because such large and important stones tend inevitably to be reset in more up-to-date settings. The extant examples mostly contain pastes and garnets and have survived because there was no advantage in melting them down and resetting the gemstones. Nevertheless even the low value ‘two-stone’ earrings are very attractive: a pair set with translucent blue opaline paste may be seen in the Museum of London; it is also interesting to note how sometimes the simple ‘two-stone’ motif is repeated to form a necklace usually worn en suite with the earrings.
From the 18th century onwards, girandoles and pendoloques continued in favour, though modified as one could expect to meet changing tastes. One finds a variation of the girandole in the I 83os and again in the late 1920s, while the pendeloque enjoyed particular favour in the 18 2os and 18 8os.
A lasting tradition
In certain peripheral areas, however, fashion evolves more slowly than in courtly and
international circles, and the form of the girandole and the pendeloque has remained
p. 63 virtually unchanged from the 18th century to modern times. This can clearly be seen
in provincial jewellery of the Iberian peninsula where one finds a recurring girandole
design: a central stylized bow motif with three pear-shaped drops, pierced in gold
Engraved designs by J. D. Saint, for three girandoles and two pendeloque earrings, 1759.
Two types of earring dominate the i 8th century: the pendeloque and the ,irandole. pendeloque earrings had been ;n favour since the early part of the century, but their greatest popularity came in the 177os. Their basic design consisted of a circular or oval surmount supporting an elongated drop which counterbalanced the excessively high hairstyles of that time. The pair shown here represent one of the commonest of ,he many variants. A diamond and pearl cluster supports a diamond ribbon bow motif suspended with a pear-shaped diamond drop with a pearl swing centre.
decorated with small rose diamonds. Dating these earrings can be problematic. Earlier examples have engraved scrolling on the back, while later ones are stamped out from a die and are coarser in appearance. They are frequently accompanied by a bodice ornament of ribbon bow known as a ‘lava’ which derives from the traditional s6vign6. These Iberian examples are not particularly heavy, having pierced mounts and being set with fewer stones; this explains the fitting which, unlike the conventional i 8th-century girandole, consists of a gold hinged hook which is inserted into the ear from back to front without any additional supporting device.
Other pendeloques follow closely the traditional i 8th-century prototypes. Some have a ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop, others a much more elongated pendant, as long as 8 cms. A typical Portuguese earring derived from the pendeloque is the Brincos a Rainha’, ‘Queen’s earring’. It has a bow surmount and a swing centre, but the drop is usually wider and stones are replaced by faceted gold bead motifs. All our examples are made from a sheet of high carat gold (usually 20 carat) from which the design has been cut out by means of a saw and file, producing a lace-like effect. Inlays were skilfully chiselled by hand and the collets that were placed round the stones, usually rose diamonds, were made separately and embellished by the burin. Later examples in the 19th century were frequently cast in the chosen shape and then finished with the chisel and burin.
In another area of the Iberian peninsula centred around Catalonia, during the late i 8th century, the girandole was the inspiration for the design of the extremely popular ‘Catalan earring’, which remained in vogue virtually unmodified up to the end of the 19th century. Unlike the Portuguese examples, Catalan earrings are extremely long and resemble later 8th-century Spanish girandoles. They are mounted with an abundance of gemstones in closed settings and chased mounts. The stones are never diamonds but semiprecious stones such as hessonite garnets and amethysts. The central ribbon bow motif is greatly stylized, the emphasis being on length rather than width, and all the elements are integrated into the overall design. Some examples have a very large central drop flanked by two smaller ones, thus retaining the structure of the girandole, while others have only a single large drop and are closer in conception to the pendeloque. The long popularity of this type of earring in Catalonia is demonstrated by numerous surviving examples and by its frequent appearance even in i 9th-century portraits, e.g. , the Flower Woman from Valencia by Joaquim Argasot y Juan. The sitter is wearing typical Catalan earrings mounted in gold with dark green gemstones, the usual stylized ribbon bow surmount suspending three drops-, they are so long that they nearly rest on the shawl draped over the woman’s shoulders. Indeed, these Catalan earrings could measure up to 14 cms and were often so heavy that they had to be supported by an additional hook placed over the ear. Sidney Churchill, in an article on ‘Peasant Jewellery’ published in The Studio, mentions the practice of alleviating the weight of a heavy earring by means of a ribbon tied round the ear, which he saw in Nicosia as late as 19 12.

Stools, Chairs and Settees
Early forms of stools—development of the chair—scarcity of chairs before the 17th century—etiquette of the joined stool—upholstered farthingale chairs—”monk seats” and Commonwealth chairs—Restoration chair design—characteristics of William and Mary chairs—Queen Anne cabriole legs and the fiddle splat—wing chairs—Chippendale chair designs—chair backs of Hepplewhite—Adam’s classical shapes—Sheraton elegance—Regency and early Victorian chairs—the mystery of the Windsor chair—harlequin sets—the emergence of the settle—love seats and the development of the settee two tiered tables .
On a marble panel in Athens which dates from around 400 B serving tray antique tea table for sale .c antique butler type ashtrays . a woman is to be seen seated on a chair which has all the characteristics of a British chair of the Regency period antiquing furniture . The designers of Regency furniture, like Thomas Hope and Henry Moses, went to the ancient civilisations for their inspiration and this chair in the Athenian sculpture is an interesting case of “it has all happened before” 6 legged table antique .
After the disorders of the Dark Ages when so much of art and craftsmanship was lost, the way of making beautiful and serviceable things had to be rediscovered or reinvented antique regency revival sideboard . At the beginning of the early Tudor period it can be said that in any house, even of the greatest importance, most people had to be content to sit on stools blacks, meissen, porcelain . Sometimes these were of the planked type as illustrated in Chapter 1, but more often they were made of turned wood with triangular shaped seats women brass lamps . This type of stool was common throughout northern Europe and when they are encountered it is difficult to say what may have been their country of origin painted romer glass .
Small chests were also used as seats in early times and formed one of the sources from which the chair developed, the other being the triangular-seated stool japanese black lacquer round tea table . In both these instances the need to provide additional support for the body brought about the addition of backs and arms to the stools antique french office chair . The first box or chest chairs were very heavy and cumbersome and it became evident that there was little advantage in constructing chairs in this way antique half circle dropleaf table . For a short while this type of chair was made without the lower side and back panels but with the front panel still included staffordshire figure lovers couple . By the middle of the 16th century the oak armchair, without any lower panels in the framework, was to be found in most houses of the reasonably well-to-do antique porcelain +swan +painted .
A custom, lasting for many years, delayed the employment of the chair for general use black stinkwood table sale . During the second half of the 16th and for the greater part of the 17th century it was commonly accepted that only the head of the family or the master of the house should occupy a chair 2 tier adams style table lid . In some homes a thoughtful husband might provide a chair for his wife but as for the rest of the household, they had to use stools or remain standing wiener werkstatte chair . The modern word chairman, to denote the head of a committee, is probably derived from this ancient practice earthenware mixing bowls antique with handles . On a point of etiquette, observed in Britain during the 17th century, a host and his wife would vacate their chairs when entertaining an important guest and would sit on joined stools, as a mark of deference, while the guest occupied a chair american spoonback armchair .
The heavy oak arm-chair of the late Elizabethan and the early Stuart periods was of very much the same pattern with turned legs and a carved or inlaid panel in the chair-back candlestick 17th century church . The only marked difference in construction was in the top rail of the back antique display cabinet half round . While the Elizabethan chair had the top rail jointed between the uprights, the Stuart version had the uprights jointed into the top rail which projected at the sides and was supported by “ears” or small brackets 18th century card table .
The joined stool must have been made in considerable numbers during the 17th century as it was frequently referred to in bequests and inventories empire pier table . Nowadays, it is sometimes called a coffin stool which is rather a misnomer breakfast serving tables . It is true that in many old churches joined stools are to be found carrying piles of hymn books or collecting boxes and occasionally they may have been used for supporting a coffin during a burial service, but they were certainly not designed for that purpose european porcelain marks 1742 . A joined stool was the average person’s seat in the 17th-century household, either at the dining table or around the fire kidney shaped tables antique . It is likely that those found in old churches today were banished there from the vicarage when custom and funds permitted the parson to provide himself with the more comfortable chairs botanical antique ceramics collectors .
While chairs with wooden seats were in use throughout the 17th century and also during the 18th in the houses of country-folk, upholstereed chairs did appear in the early Stuart period antique extend side table . These, like the farthingale chairs, have already been mentioned in a previous chapter but during the Commonwealth somewhat heavy oak dining chairs were taken into use about the same time as the gate-leg table appeared thomas sheraton games table . These were similar to the farthingale chairs but had lower seats and higher backs which were upholstered in thick leather and edged with large brass round-headed nails antique empire pier table .
An interesting, dual-purpose piece of furniture was developed about this time satsuma pottery thousand flower . Known as a table-chair, it was constructed so that when the table-top was tilted to a vertical position it formed the back of a chair kidney shape dressing table . It is sometimes referred to as a monk’s seat, but the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the consequent banishment of the monks from the British way of life had occurred over a hundred years before the table-chair was invented 19th century tables .
The chief characteristic of Restoration chair design was the spiral twist for legs and backs english refectory table . A favourite motif of the wood-carver for chair decoration was the device of two cherubs, or amorini, supporting a royal crown c 1840 antique pedestal card table . This was inspired by the return of the monarchy after the Commonwealth and remained in popular favour until the close of the century antique secretaire . Chairs of the better quality were usually made in walnut but in the provinces many dining chairs were produced in oak 18th century chamber pots . Two varieties of these are usually referred to as Yorkshire and Lancashire chairs antique chair tall skinny back . They were quite heavily made and the former had two shaped and rounded back-rails, decorated with carving and bearing a small bearded mask century hepplewhite walnut card table . Traditionally, this was said to represent the death mask of the martyred Charles I and earned for this Yorkshire type the name of mortuary chair antique soup terrines . The Lancashire chairs, on the other hand, have panelled backs and I have an example in my possession on which the carving is very similar to that on a set in the ancient Chetham’s School, Manchester, which dates from the mid-17th century royal sheffield candlesticks . The finials on the uprights of my chair are the same as those on a settle which appears in Brueghel’s painting The Village Wedding meissen scattered flowers tea sets . The Brueghel picture was painted about 1530 and so we realise the slow movement of continental influence showing itself in the north of England over a hundred years later 16th century japanese tables .
Portuguese and Spanish characteristics, entering England directly through royal marriages or more deviously through France and the Netherlands, considerably affected the design of William and Mary chairs scriptoire . Here is found the tall, narrow back and the scrolled foot which during the reign of Queen Anne was to develop into thy, cabriole leg art deco polished matte lost-wax castings o nude women in bronze by viennese artisans . On these chairs the design of the upper back rail is often repeated in the lower front rail antique chippendale dining chairs with bronze leg decoration .
The type of chair which evolved during the first decade
of the 18th century was very pleasing to the eye antique brown staffordshire . The first cabriole legs were quite plain but the chair-makers of the lime did not consider that the chair legs were sufficiently strong to be made without connecting stretchers antique dining room with bulbous legs . However, by introducing a deeper seat rail it became possible to make a stronger joint at the top of the chair leg and eventually the stretchers were dispensed with altogether antique dresser names . The chair-backs of the Queen Anne period were of a pleasantly rounded appearance with a fiddle-shaped central splat, curved to support the sitter’s back meissen figures .
During the early Georgian period the cabriole leg remained in favour and without the stretchers was more sturdily fashioned than the finer Queen Anne shape 17th century writing desk . Moreover, it became the custom in the better class of chair to ornament the knees of the cabriole legs with carved shells, acanthus leaves or satyr masks american art deco bar furniture . Instead of a simple pad at the bottom of the leg, the ball and claw foot was adopted 19th century pennsylvania furniture prices . This was a pattern derived from a Chinese dragon motif which clasped in its claw a celestial pearl 19th century antique hall table . All-over upholstery of chair backs now became fashionable, but it was a vogue which died out when Chippendale and his contemporaries introduced the elaborately carved chair backs of the mid-18th century duncan phyfe table and buffet .
Chippendale included a straight, square sectioned leg among the designs for his chairs and when made in the Chinese taste these were covered in low-relief carving to simulate lattice work edward round drum tables . As if there was some doubt as to the structural efficiency of these legs, the use of stretchers was re-introduced art deco round glass chinese painted coffee table value . Chair backs were generally rectangular, whether the style was Gothic, Chinese or one of the many rococo patterns which decorated the pierced splats antique bedside toilet . Some of these complicated designs from Chippendale’s Director were rather pleasingly simplified by country craftsmen, e antique silver fish knives ivory handle .g english knife box . the well-known rush-seated ladder-back chair early american wall mirror .
Around the beginning of the 18th century the wing-wardly curving upholstered arms and cabriole feet antique german breakfast table . Later in the century the arms were made more upright and the side wings larger victorian cherry drop leaf table . The wing-chair is deceptive both in size and comfort small antique dressing table with cabriole legs . It often looks smaller than it really is and care should be taken before buying one to ensure that it will really fit in wherever it is intended to go early 19th century mahogany desks with lion feet . Although the winged chair marked a great advance in human comfort at the time, the unsprung seating feels hard compared with the resilience of 20th-century upholstery antique inlaid marquetry dutch chairs .
While George Hepplewhite was known to have made a considerable quantity of furniture to the designs of Robert Adam, he himself was probably responsible for many well-known types of chair such as the shield-back, the oval-back and the feathers pattern sofa table mahogany antique . The backs of Hepplewhite’s chairs were more rounded than those of his predecessors and he also favoured tapered legs which were often fluted utensils used in britain for cooking . His furniture generally was of a lighter appearance than that which had gone before occasional tables painted india . Sets of dining chairs usually consisted of ten or twelve single chairs and two arm-chairs or carvers antique rectangular drop leaf dining table . These latter were designed to accommodate the broad figures and full frock coats of the l8th-century gentlemen and the seats were made proportionately wide rue la la . The curve and sweep of the arms is also noteworthy for they were cut from solid blocks of mahogany of a size which would make it uneconomic to employ in modern reproductions “myott, son & co” .
Robert Adam designed his chairs to match the classical interior decoration of the houses he built vintage wooden card table . They had turned and fluted or tapered legs and the lyre-back pattern was typical 19th century glass fronted cabinet . He contrived some elegant gilded chairs whose backs were adorned with small painted medallions on which appeared figures from Greek and Roman mythology georgian dressing tables . These were painted by contemporary artists like Angelica Kauffmann and Zucchi lenci mermaid figurines . Adam also introduced the fashion for painted beechwood furniture, and chairs in this style were often finished in black or white paint, neatly lined with gilding kem weber furniture designer prices .
For some time previously gilded furniture had enjoyed considerable popularity art deco reproductions clock . It is said that it was first introduced according to the wishes of the wives of those Georgian gentlemen who were filling their Palladian mansions with the rich but somewhat sombre mahogany furniture rare antique drop leaf . Quite a large proportion of this gilded furniture was imported from France and it is very difficult to identify English made chairs from the French originals german antique work tables . French chairs are believed to have upholstered pads on the arms and small peg-like ends to the scrolled feet while English gilded chairs are supposed not to have had any upholstery on the arms while the scrolls reached right down to the end of the legs bauhaus style furniture +scale . 1 have, however, seen both English and French chairs with variations of all these characteristics oriental writing bureau cabinet .
The rectangular chair-back returned with Thomas Sheraton, who of all the 18th-century designers could probably claim to have the greatest delicacy of taste antique chamber cabinets . He owed this success to a lightness of construction, hitherto unattained, and to his use of the natural beauty of the mahogany and satinwood grain directoire sofa . This he left without embellishment except for a slight amount of inlay and some boxwood stringing along the edges antique 18th century cedar chest . Sheraton was very close to the 20th century in his chair designs and I have seen dining chairs produced by well-known designers of the present day where the influence of Thomas Sheraton has been very strong indeed andre delatte .
Regency chairs have a distinctive elegance of their own, and although they could be bought quite cheaply in sets before the 1939-45 War, today they are very much in demand nest of 20 drawers . They are rather simply shaped with slender, turned legs and attractively scrolled backs antique art deco fixture . The back rails are often inlaid with ebony or brass and the lower rail is sometimes found carved like a rope length silver forks made in london . It was during this period that the top back rail was constructed so that it protruded on either side of the uprights, this design often being associated with the so-called sabre-shaped leg small sterling silver clocks .
The Restoration spiral twist now re-appeared in the Abbotsford furniture of the early Victorian period antique kayseri silk carpet pictoral niche . These chairs were usually made of walnut or rosewood but could never be mistaken for late 17th-century pieces antique oakchamber pot chair with hinged top . In spite of their rather fussy character and beadwork upholstery they are attractive and well worth acquiring bone handled fork converted to knive . About 1860 the cabriole leg returned to favour and many sets of attractive chairs, designed for the drawing room or parlour, were produced walnut escutcheons . Country-made rush-seated chairs with turned spindle backs and club legs date from the early 19th century and are still made in some northern counties french table stretcher draw leaf .
The origin of the Windsor chair is shrouded in mystery, as is also the name antique dresser with drawers stamped 54 . The tale that George III discovered this turned-wood type of chair at a house in the Chilterns and found it so to his liking that he had it sent to Windsor for his personal use may be accepted with that degree of credulity accorded to many fables concerning antiques cabinet makers antique work bench . Some authorities date the Windsor chair from the late 17th century and others from the mid-18th edwardian wardrobes . It is more than likely that in areas such as the Chilterns, where there are extensive beech forests, turned-wood stools and chairs have been produced for a very long time, even as far back as the 16th century desk boulle style . The Windsor chair as it is known today was really a product of the 18th century and it was probably during that time that it reached that very high degree of functional design for which it has become famous william kent eagle console table . Traditionally, these chairs have legs and spindles of beech which until a short time ago were shaped on crude lathes in the beechwoods by turners known as bodgers antique draw leaf dining table . The hooped backs and arms were made of ash which could be easily steamed and bent to shape while the seats were of elm because they could be cut in one piece from the broad elm boards silverware sets real fake . Some Windsor chairs have yew-wood arms, backs and spindles but are rather more rare and consequently more expensive to acquire italian provincial furniture . Those which have a shaped central splat in the back with a small wheel-like figure incorporated in the design are usually referred to as wheel-back chairs german antique sideboards and buffets fluted .
I have already mentioned sets of Georgian dining chairs and these command a high price, even when country-made russian porcelain antique . Due to a 19th-century custom of dividing sets of chairs among the beneficiaries of the will on the death of the owner, it is quite common to find single specimens or pairs of chairs of almost any period in sale-rooms and antique shops 18th century victorian toilet in dining room . Accordingly, it is not a difficult matter to collect what is sometimes referred to by the antique trade as a harlequin set of different chairs, either of the same or various periods empire curved bureau . In my dining room I have a very pleasant example of the Hepplewhite period, a pair and one single chair of Sheraton design, and two Regency carvers song dynasty bluish green glazed earthenware . None of these cost more than £5 and some much less countries that art deco was very popular .
High-backed oak settles look cosy and attractive before an open fire in a country inn but they are not really very comfortable and seldom fit in with a modest collection of antique furniture 18th century king george red velvet arm chair value . They often have a chest beneath with a hinged lid in the seat and sometimes shaped wings at the sides to combat the draughts pilaster bookstand price . The low-back settle or panelled settee with cabriole legs and a long overlaid cushioned seat are a better proposition and can be bought for under E10 antique cherry drop leaf table claw foot .
Of much rarer vintage is the double seated settee or love seat, designed according to tradition for the use of courting couples “desk”+”antique” . I believe that this is just another fable as these seats are not infrequently found in pairs, the second one provided, perhaps, for the chaperone simple design dressing table . More likely these love seats were merely part of the seating accommodation provided in a large salon or ballroom for the assem-blies and routs so much beloved by the Georgians ornate antique silver roast serving platter .
Longer settees with cabriole or square Chippendale type legs, and with padded arms and upholstered seats and backs, made an appearance in the second half of the 18th century francaise antique . Apparently they did not develop in popularity as there are comparatively few about and their places were taken by the sofa and couch swansea duck egg .

FRENCH FURNITURE
Louis XIV, 1643-1715
T is desirable for the man interested in English furniture
to have at least a working knowledge of the French styles,
if for no other reason than that of appreciating their influence on English work seventeenth century english stoneware . To understand them thoroughly is a study equally as wide and intricate as that of English furniture (if not more so) and to do justice to the subject would call for a separate volume as large as the present one antique porcelain tea pot made in france . In these few pages one can hope to do little more than point out the salient features 19th century floral paintings .
Historically speaking the subject goes back farther than our own, for the continental craftsmen were far more advanced than the English, and have left more and better examples of their work to posterity antique table 8 legs with brass feet . For the present purpose, however, the reigns of the three Louis, XIV, XV, and XVI are all that we are concerned with, for when speaking of French furniture it is the work produced during the period of these monarchs that one invariably calls to mind antique blue and white earthenware jug with zigzag pattern .
Louis XIV came to the throne in 1643, a time when the French Renaissance had lost much of its Italian origin and had developed a strong individual character lenci wall masks . Whatever his merits or demerits as a king may have been, the world of art certainly owes much to him for the encouragement he gave to all arts and crafts antique french tier table . He was a man of most extravagant tastes, and, living in a time when France was one of the strongest and wealthiest of European Powers, he was able to give full play to his fancies antique drop-leaf end tables . His court was probably the most magnificent that Europe has ever known, and the daily extravagant ceremonial called for a setting for which nothing but the costliest and richest would do napoleonic campaign chairs . Fortunately, this great impetus to fine work came at a time when men of considerable talent were seeking expression, and it required only this talent on the one hand and the wealth and encouragement on the other to produce a style which (in its own particular way) has never been excelled theodore haviland 1958 pattern .
Period of Louis XIV
Of the capable craftsmen whose names are outstanding probably the greatest was Andr6 Charles Boulle who was born in 1642 and died in 1732 dresser accessories . He had experimented with a form of marquetry which had originated in Italy, and when the great tide of building and furnishing came he took it at its flood, and developed this marquetry into a distinctive kind which for sheer exquisite workmanship, coupled with fine design, stands unique antique card table with one flap . It is often termed ” Buhl,” and was carried out in brass or copper, and tortoiseshell, ebony, and horn drop leaf table wall semi circle .
A brief explanation of how marquetry was produced was given in Chapter V chamber pot in cabinet . Two sheets of dissimilar materials were fixed together temporarily and the design cut through both with a fine saw gillows three hinge . The two sheets were then separated and the parts interchanged so that in the one there would be a design of, say, brass on a background of tortoiseshell, and in the other the exact reverse antique “la granja” glass . Thus it was possible to produce two cabinets of precisely the same outline and design, but the one the reverse of the other in the material of the design and background designer extending round dining tables in kent . The one was the (4 counter ” of the other, hence the terms ” Buhl ” and if counter black lacquer dining chairs .”
A typical Boulle cabinet is shown in Fig silver fish slice . 165, in which this rich marquetry work is an outstanding feature figural silver antique candlesticks . In addition to the scrolling design of the inlay itself the whole of the brasswork is richly engraved, producing an effect which almost approaches the work of the jeweller rather than that of the cabinet maker antique english dressing table . A point to note is that wood carving is almost entirely absent, the decorative effect, apart from the marquetry, being obtained entirely with rich brass mounts antique mirror back sideboard 1920’s . Some of the leading artist-craftsmen of the time were engaged in the production of these mounts wooden arm chair pedestal castor antique oak .
It was for the decoration and furnishing of the Palace of Versailles that the finest and richest work was produced, and the Palace, even as it stands to-day after the ravages of the Revolution, leaves one gasping at its sheer extravagant splendour origins and development of arts . One has to remember that the furniture maker then was regarded as an artist, and certainly the results seem to justify such a status edgard brandt . It is with something like a shock that one realises that the cabinet in Fig antique table round drop leaf claw foot . 165 was produced at the same time as the simple early walnut furniture in England art nouveau . It is true that a colossal amount of money was spent on the production of such pieces, but it has to be admitted that the French cabinet makers were far in advance of our own staffordshire figures of royalty . It is points like this that help one to realise why it was that a revolution of ideas took place when Charles II came to reign in England after years of exile spent in France georgian telescopic silver candlestick .
The famous Gobelins factory for the production of tapestry was purchased by Louis XIV, and cabinet-making workshops were established in it art deco upholstery . Charles Le Brun became the director, and the world of art owes a great deal to his energetic leadership perpetual calendar 18th century . :Much of the finest work at Versailles was produced at the factory carlo bugatti furniture antiques .
In general form the surfaces of cabinets were flat—at any rate early in the period west indies antique paintings . This is mentioned in particular because we shall see that in the next phase curved surfaces were introduced everywhere art nouveau origins . The general decoration took the form of Boulle marquetry of brass or copper on a background of ebony or tortoiseshell, the design consisting of elaborate scroll work richly chased, allegorical figures, fruit and floral motifs, swags of husks, and acanthus leafage, the whole in a somewhat free interpretation of the Renaissance daniel quare 1674 tortoiseshell case pocket watches . Bold ormolu mounts heavily gilded were fitted, these taking the form of lion masks, scrolled consoles, acanthus scrolls, human masks, and deep nullings royal sheffield silver . Both straight and curved legs were used, the last named becoming more popular towards the end of the period in harmony with the tendency towards shaped work generally william kent console table .
COMMODE IN KINGWOOD WITH INLAYS queen ann gate leg table .
Laois XV antique prohibition table example .
This cabinet, made for the King’s chamber at Versailles, is a design of SIodtz and was made by Antoine Robert
Gaudreau In 1738 antique fluted gateleg table legs . The gilt bronze mounts were by Jacques Caffiere booths pearlware marks .
FRENCH FURNITURE
Louis XV, 1715-1774
T0 appreciate the underlying causes of the changes in the type of furniture produced in Louis XV’s reign
it is necessary to know something of the historical events of the period 18th century forks . Louis XIV had died in 1715 when his heir «as but five years old, and it became necessary to appoint a regent antique decorative motif . The Duke of Orleans took the office, and he was virtually monarch until his death in 1723 directoire consulat empire . There was thus a break in the extravagant court grandeur which was so essentially a feature of the reign of the late king art deco antique furniture makers . The wild expenditure of the seventy odd years of le Grand i1lonarque, too, had left its mark on the finances of the court and aristocracy antique pouch table . No country, no matter how powerful and prosperous, could continue for an unlimited time to spend money on pure aggrandisement to such an extent, and as a result there were but two alternatives : to live in a quieter way, or to find fresh sources of income mid 17th century foods france . In the event a sort of compromise was effected 17th century french fashion . The aristocracy began to contract marriages with humbler but wealthy classes, bankers, merchants, and so on ; and in place of the grandeur of the great salon so beloved by Louis XIV came the rise of the smaller boudoir photos of antique chambersticks . In fact the two periods are often referred to respectively as the periods of the salon and the boudoir jupe table mechanism .
Its effect on the furniture was that it was in its way equally rich, but was on a smaller scale how much is a claw foot table worth . Then, too, the masculine grandeur gave way to an effeminate prettiness, a change quite in keeping with the general conduct of life emile galle furniture . People began to look for elegance rather than grandeur, and to use ornament purely for its own sake boulle console table with marble tops with elaborate friezes .
We have had occasion to note in earlier chapters in this book that an idea, once it takes root, frequently is carried to extremes, and it thus happened that the tendency to introduce shaped work towards the end of Louis XIV’s reign reached such a height in the succeeding reign that many cabinets were made with scarcely a straight line or a flat surface in them regency antique mahogany dining table styles . This extraordinary use of curves is the keynote of Louis XV furniture when was art deco furniture stated in france . The skill shown in overcoming the difficulties that such work presented is amazing octagonal brass & silver table . One may’ or may not admire this flamboyant phase of French furniture, but no one can but admire the excellence of the workmanship augsburg marquetry table cabinet . The fronts and sides of cabinets, bureaux, and so on were curved in both plan and elevation, and some idea of the difficulty of veneering over such a surface can be obtained by trying to lay a flat sheet of paper around a ball barrel leg oak dining table . Added to this was the fact that the whole was usually elaborately inlaid or given a decorative effect by the use of designs in which the varying, direction of the grain of the wood was made to play a part round rosewood breakfast table .
So far as furniture was concerned the preference for gilded mounts in place of wood carving continued, and the workmanship of these was of an extremely high order table octagon marquetry drawer . One may not care for the effect as a whole—it frequently appears restless and overdone, but regarded individually the work was extremely fine i.i.e. exclusive capodimonte . The love of curves developed to an extraordinary extent, resulting in its fulness in what is known as the Rococo decoration thonet rocking chair . The term comes from two French words meaning rocks and shells, to which the ornament bears a certain resemblance antique porcelain czechoslovakia wall face . It is exemplified in Fig austrian mirrored tables . 166—in which the elaborate scrolls and acanthus leafage can be seen antique collector’s cabinet . The chief exponents of the rococo were Meissonier and Slodtz palissy patterns .
The French version of the cabriole leg reached its zenith during this period side table black hand painted birds and flowers made in italy . It was essentially suited to the general and wide use of shapes antique metal tables with drop leaves . In a limited sense it bore a resemblance to the English version, but it had an entirely different spirit telescopic glass tables . The English leg at its best had a high, well-pronounced knee running abruptly into a square at the top, and terminating at the bottom with one or other varieties of the club or claw and ball foot can antique dressers pair with modern furniture . An example was given in Fig flemish refectory table . 116 at E meissen figures . The French variety was of a more flowing shape steuben stemware deco . There was no square at the top, the shape either flowing naturally into shaped rails at the sides, or continuing with a concave curve upwards antique english dressing table . At the bottom the foot was usually scrolled italian buffet decorations . The cabinet in Fig antique english rhenish ware . 166 shows the typical French shape black lacquer china cabinet .
A great many varieties of woods were used ; mahogany,amboyna, tulipwood, boxwood, rosewood, sycamore, ebony, and amaranth are amongst the commonest antique cabinets coat of arms . Satinwood too was used towards the end of the reign, though this is more usually associated with the following reign of Louis XVI antique console table carved wood . Gilding and lacquering were popular meisen hand painted plates 1920 allegorical . At first the lacquer work was imported from the East, or panels were prepared and sent to China to be lacquered, but later it was imitated in the French factories, though the detail in it was often faulty, western motifs being introduced in a somewhat incongruous manner brislington delftware . A firm of the name of Martin paid special attention to this lacquer work and produced a preparation known as Vernis-Martin towards the middle of the century 1945 mahogany desk . In its final stage this originally Oriental decoration became almost wholly westernised, the decorative artists painting allegorical subjects in natural settings on a lacquered background patent imperial dining table gillows .
Towards the end of the reign a reaction against the elaborate Rococo work set in, and there came a revival of the classical spirit which was the keynote of the work in the Following reign canterbury music stand .
FRENCH FURNITURE
Louts XVI, 1774–1793
THE financial difficulties of the reign of Louis XV have already been noted reproduction 18th century tea bowl . They still existed, in fact
were increased, when the ill-starred Louis XVI came to the throne in 1774 hand blown romer glass . The clouds were already gathering for the storm which was to break close on twenty years later antique empire and biedermeier periods 1800 to 1848 . This, combined with the reaction against the Rococo work of the middle of the 18th century, produced a type of furniture in which the shaped work was largely, if not wholly, eliminated daniel quare 1674 tortoiseshell case pocket watches . Design became altogether more refined and returned again to the classical spirit, prompted largely by the excavations of Herculaneum which had been begun seriously in the middle of the century table paw feet antique .
Then again the Queen of Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, favoured simple country life ; the elaboration of the preceding reign made no appeal to her, and although the movement towards simpler lines began before she was Queen, her influence undoubtedly encouraged the new feeling mirrors antique british chevron . It should be realised, however, that the term ” simple ” is used relatively antique neoclassical . Compared with the English, French cabinet work of Louis XVI was vastly more ornate hunt roskell silver auction . French furniture always was, It was just the natural national expression, but when it is compared with the full shaped work of the preceding reign the simpler and more refined feeling is apparent small dressing table cupboard .
The chief characteristics of Louis XVI are the use of straight lines and flat surfaces with a delicate and refined treatment of the detail floral ornaments art nouveau . Mouldings are small and the carving light and delicate old cantagalli pottery . Gilded mounts are widely used (they were still largely preferred to wood carving) and the quality is of a very high order reverse serpentine sideboard . The subjects take the form of rural, natural, and conventional objects ; scythes, spades, lutes, pipes, birds, cupids, torches, ribbons, swags of husks, flowers, medallions, and acanthus scrolls ormolou decoration . The last named are altogether less flamboyant than the ornament of Louis XV
time antique card table flaps . The woods used were the same as those of the previous reign with an increasing popularity for satinwood 18th century wine cooler brass feet . Lacquer work was also still widely used, and was often bounded by gilded mouldings antique mahogany drop leaf work table .
With the disappearance of the shaped work the cabriole leg lost much of its popularity, especially for cabinets and commodes, though it still was used for small bureaux and console tables in a lighter form cantagalli pottery . The light turned and square tapered leg was used largely, the last named often being recessed on its faces and decorated with gilded mounts fixed in the recessed panels 1930s antique square table . The chief designers were Riesener, Gouthiere, and Roentgen slant front desk antique .
All design is largely a matter of personal taste, but it is usually conceded that the work of Louis XVI shows French design and workmanship at its best 17th century oak side table . The furniture of Louis XIV had a certain grandeur tending to heaviness at its worst, this developing into an overdone elaboration in the following reign antique bombe commodes for sale . In the last of the three reigns there was a reaction against the worst features, and the result shows a welcome restraint scotish chest of drawers .
Readers wishing to study French furniture at first hand should examine the fine specimens at the Wallace collection, and the Jones bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington oak art deco scandinavian furniture . Those who are able to visit France should see the magnificent collection at the Palace of Versailles cheverton machine .
UPHOLSTERED CHAIR WITH BRASS MOUNTS josef maria olbrich furniture . French Empire gustavian chairs pierced splats,fluted legs .
The chair was made in about 1810 column empire style bedside tables . The wings of the beasts are in brass
and are screwed beneath the seat rails provincial furniture number drawers . The feet too are brass, being
socketed to fit over the stub legs antique french saxon china flowers with gold .
FRENCH FURNITURE
EMPIRE
THE period of the French Revolution during which Louis XVI and large numbers of the French aristo-
cracy were executed was scarcely a time in which cabinet making could be expected to flourish antique bedside toilet . Wealthy people went into hiding or fled the country, and there was nobody left to order the fine quality and expensive furniture one usually associates with France of the second half of the eighteenth century gateleg table antique . In fact, some of the famous ebenistes themselves were prosecuted for their close connection with the royalty and aristocracy george serving table fluted . It was not until conditions had settled down under the forceful government of Napoleon that any revival of the making of fine furniture was possible makers of silver table ware in late 1800’s .
It was then that was evolved the style which has become known as Empire chair 18th queen rococo revival . If Louis XIV furniture be characterised as solid magnificent grandeur, Louis XV as flamboyant elegance, all shapes and curves, Louis XVI as delicate refinement, sometimes verging on the effeminate, then the Empire can be reckoned as stately and dignified with a strong influence of the Greek, Roman, and Egyptian dutch silver octagon trinket box . Compared with the elegant style preceding it, Empire furniture is considerably more restrained, mostly with straight lines, usually in mahogany, and invariably mounted with brass or gilt ornaments meissen/cabinet plate/19th century . These ornaments took the form of the Greek honeysuckle and vases, laurel wreaths, caryatid figures, martial helmets, torches, winged animals, and so on english furniture toilet chest .
Presumably the style was a tribute to the leadership of Napoleon, the Emperor who had marched through Europe and beyond antique tray table white . It scarcely outlasted his final downfall in 184, though its influence continued to be felt in this country during the Regency period antique enamel top table .
UPHOLSTERED CHAIR WITH BRASS MOUNTS new england antique dining tables .
‘The chair was made in about 1810 1920s draw leaf dining set turned legs . The wings of the beasts are in brass
and are screwed beneath the seat rails 3 leaf antique extending dining table . The feet too are brass, being
socketed to fit over the stub legs scandinavian octagon dining table .

THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD
HEPPLEWHITE began his career as a cabinet maker
at a time when the art of cabinet making was at its ifullest tide kakiemon porcelain . The second half of the eighteenth century is often called the golden age of cabinet making, and by I- `6o, when Hepplewhite settled in business at Cripple-gate, the standard of design and craftsmanship was at its zenit1h walnut tripod tea table . The Chippendale school was still in its prime, and they was a strong group of craftsmen who had ingrained in the — a fine trade tradition, a thing which implies something more than a mere ability to use tools antique card table collectors . It means a sense of appreciation and a certain element of originality, tempered with the convention that belongs to a workshop where everything is done by hand silver tripod table .
George Hepplewhite was one of these practical men english bristol teapots . He was scarcely a designer in the sense that Robert Adam was antique english stoneware identification . He did not sit down at his drawing board and sketch out purely original designs, but his work had characteristic features that can usually be recognised andre’ japaneese porcelain . As a cabinet maker he knew his job perfectly, and, in addition, he had a keen appreciation of fine line which enabled him to give his work a certain individuality in a way that would be beyond a man of no imagination eighteenth century women dressing in front of men in their bedchamber . In this sense he no doubt influenced the trade considerably, but beyond this he simply worked in a certain style which a group of cabinet makers was following angouleme guerhard . His name has come to be attached to that style probably because of his book, The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide, and that was not published until 1788, two years after his death antique wooden pot cupboard .
It is apparent, then, in speaking of Hepplewhite furniture a general style popular from about 1760 until practically the end of the century is implied rather than the work of Hepplewhite himself as an individual dutch antique furniture . A great deal of furniture no doubt was made in the workshop at Cripplegate, but except in a few rare instances it is impossible definitely to identify it antique drop-leaf bread table .
Taken generally, Ilepplewhite furniture was comparatively simple antique blue glass kidney shaped end table . There were a few touches of decoration (usually applied), but even the most ornate specimens had nothing like the elaboration found in the richer Chippendale pieces english porcelain parian . Several new forms of decoration were introduced or revived, for whereas Chippendale work had little other form of decoration besides carving, Hepplewhite furniture had
FIG (chineseexportporcelaincoffeeservice) . 130 tambour commode . SHIELD BACK CHAIR french art deco porcelain jaguar .
1770-1780 spoonback armchair .
One of the finest chairs produced in the 18th century “antique collectors blog” .
For all their lightness these chairs were extremely strong art nouveau jugendstil jugs .
being made in the finest mahogany and of the best work-
manship multipurpose dressing table .
inlay, painting, and gilding in addition to carving glass table antique ceramic legs . The inlay usually took the form of bandings and strings in satinwood, rosewood, ebony, and so on, and was in fact very similar to the inlaid work usually associated with Sheraton glass boudoir lamp deco . Carving was of small classical subject, vases, festoons, draped cloth, and swags of husks, an entire departure from the elaborate scrolling acanthus leafwork of the Chippendale school duke extendable dining table .
It is perhaps in the chair that the Hepplewhite charac-
HOOP BACK
CHAIR antique empire or regency style mahogany bookcase .
1770-1780 english seventeenth century cabinets .
A favourite motif of Hepple-
whitewere the ears of wheat ball and claw tripod table antique . These appear at
the top of the pierced splat
in the back 18th century wardrobe .
11
FIG carved japanese tea table . 132 edgar brandt reproductions snake lamp . OVAL BACK
CHAIR pennsylvania house antique sideboard .
1770-1780-
The French influence is
strongly marked In this
chair world market carved brass charger plate . Except for this
French form the cabriole
leg was never used by
the late 18th century
designers antique silver sphinx .
SIDEBOARD WITH BREAK FRONT DECORATED WITH INLAY pembroke end table .
Late i8th century,
It was not until towards the end of the 18th century that the sideboard with drawer and cupboard accommodation
was made epergne antique for sale . It was evolved from the side table with separate pedestals recipe for “soft paste porcelain” . It is difficult to distinguish between
Hepplewhite and Sheraton pieces as both had a great deal in common italian deco furniture .
The Shield Back Chair
teristic is most marked de coene freres . Probably the most famous type is the shield back, of which an example is given in Fig small sutherland table . 130- A really fine example of a shield back ranks amongst the most beautiful things ever produced, but, like the cabriole leg, first-rate examples are rare antique folding “coaching table” . The truth is that it takes a first-class chair maker of considerable experience to make one properly, the difficulty being that the shaping runs in three directions 16th century english joyned table . There is the shield shape seen from the front, the backward rake, and the concave plan shape antique table turned legs . To incorporate all these to form one harmonious whole is something that calls for a great deal of skill and experience antique inlaid table birds .
As a rule the main back framing had a channelled moulding worked all round it, and the probable reason for this was that it helped to emphasise the shield shape steuben stemware deco . It will be realised that, although the lower part of the shield appears to be in one piece, it is in reality in three dresser with mirrors & teardrop pulls & ogee bracket . The side portions in fact continue down, forming the back legs, and a curved bottom rail is fitted in to complete the shape between them 18th century marquetry . By channelling the wood the shield appears to be in one unbroken piece william iv jupe extending circular . The front legs of these chairs were invariably tapered louis sue .
The chief outside influences of Hepplewhite were the Adam and the French raoul dufy, plates ceramique . Of the latter there was Louis XV, which showed itself in the cabriole leg exemplified in Fig classical work/sewing table mahogany,3 drawers,carved legs, pedestal paw feet . 132 olive green and iron red oriental porcelain . Note the French scrolled foot and the flat shaping which continues along the front seat rail in an unbroken sweep arabisque furniture in ny . Another French influence came from the Louis XVI, and one result was the use of the turned leg 18th and 19th century silversmithing . An example of this is the settee in Fig antique spoons italy silver ornate . 129 papier mache tray-c19th .
Other typical Hepplewhite chair backs are the hoop back, of which Fig antique drop leaf or gate leg tables, ,ny . 131 is an example, the oval back (Fig antique 5 leg oak drop leaf table . 132), heart shape, and that with the serpentine shaped top rail curving into the uprights mackintosh wooden chairs .
Pieces such as sideboards, writing tables, bureaux, chests of drawers, tallboys, wardrobes, and so on were, as already mentioned, extremely like Sheraton furniture, and are dealt with more fully in Chapter X curved back chair from 1940s . The bedstead in Fig french chamber pot bed tables . 129 is a four-poster, very like one appearing in Hepplewhite’s book, and shows the general restraint in treatment walnut tripod tea table .
Fig clawfoot dresser . 133 is a sideboard belonging to the last few years of the eighteenth century trestle table double column . It has characteristics of the Hepplewhite style, but there are others which belong equally to Sheraton, and, as we are dealing with what might be termed schools of design rather than the work of individuals, it is apparent that one can do little more than term it late eighteenth century antique french empire . It is probably the work of a cabinet maker whose name has not come down to posterity, and who worked in the traditional style of the period edwards & roberts furniture .
THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
ADAM PERIOD
N one important sense Robert Adam was entirely
different from the other outstanding characters with
-whose work this book deals serpentine top breakfast table . He was an architect by profession, not a practical cabinet maker, and in turning his attention to furniture he was not in any way fettered by any convention which a tradesman might have 19century british armschairs . It is not suggested that the convention of a good trade tradition is bad ; it is one of the healthiest influences a craft can have ; but it simply is a statement of fact that Adam was able to approach the subject from a fresh angle italian inlaid tea table . He worked from his drawing board and passed on his designs to be carried out by a practical cabinet maker porcelain spanish dancers .
He had travelled a good deal in France and Italy, and on his return in 1758 he set himself up as an architect and rapidly became very successful antique furniture prohibition bar examples . As a result of his foreign studies he was influenced considerably by the classical school, but he had a strong individual turn, and as a result his work had a characteristic touch which made it different from that of other architects working in the classical style antique drop leaf table for sale . It was delicate and refined (some term it effeminate), abounding in small intricate detail, and it superseded largely the rather heavier work of such architects as Sir William Chambers “empire designer, best known for pedestal tables with curved legs .
His connection with furniture was that in designing an interior he included the furniture as an essential part of the scheme blue china tea set with silver inlay england . To the average architect the work was finished when the walls and ceiling had been decorated, but Adam required every detail, even to the ornaments on the sideboard, to harmonise with his ideas japanese portable cherry wood tea tables . Perhaps the most notable example is that of Harewood House, in which the furniture was designed by Adam and executed by Chippendale antique ball and claw desk .
Although there were marked characteristics in Adam furniture, one has to be wary in accepting a piece as genuine Adam Characteristics
Adam chinese furnture form mid 19th centuary . The fact that he had to employ practical cabinet makers, combined with his great success, soon led to a great deal of imitation simple european furniture . In fact, of all the ” Adam ” work that has survived only a very small part can be identified as owing its origin to Adam himself regency period casters .
FIG porcelaine antique motif ming . 137 louis the 14th chair . DINING TABLE WITH FLAP AND PIVOTED BACK LEG japanese laqure tea table .
Abotd 1775•
This is one of a pair of tables Intended to be placed together when used
for dining silver flatware wood handle . The front rail is in reality a drawer front brass ornaments for furniture empire style . It now stands In
the Victoria and Albert Museum South Kensington 1828 sideboard buffet .
self was an individual and original designer, ” Adam ” furniture was, for the most part, the work of a school working in his style antique wood drop leaf table .
Adam used many methods of decoration in his furniture antique oak dropleaf gateleg table . The carving had definite characteristics shearers cupboard heavy . The acanthus leafage was finer and more delicately treated than in the full scrolled form which Chippendale had favoured, and, in addition, he used chains of husks, the honeysuckle device, Greek key, vases, drapery, plaques carved with mythological subjects, rams’ heads, and grotesques antique empire furniture . Inlay and marquetry, too, were revived, and were carried out in satinwood, tulip-wood, rosewood, amboyna, harewood, and so on biedermeier antique de . The subjects were similar to those of the carving furniture designersgerman . Another form of decoration was painting in the style of Angelica Kauffman meissen porcelain antic . A popular treatment was to make these painted panels the main feature of a design of scrolling acanthus leafwork
FIG antique dishes germany pastels with scallops . 138 henry clay bed and furniture . SEMI-CIRCULAR ADAM SIDE TABLE ferniture leg in itali .
T770-1780 antique table in europe .
An extremely fine piece of cabinet work carried out In mahogany antique vase markings newcastle.. on. tyne 1762 . The
curved top rail is veneered, the grain running crosswise 17 century elm gateleg table . The centre
panel and the oval pater2e are typical features brass frame girandole images .
and husks 17th and 18th century french silver marks . In some few instances, too, Wedgwood plaques were introduced bidet square .
A typical Adam sideboard is shown in Fig lion antique mahogany dining table . 136 royal sheffield silver . Properly speaking, it is a side table with two pedestals, but the three pieces were intended to stand together and form a whole In some cases the pedestals were actually joined to the table, though the result never seems quite so successful furniture of meiji period . It gives one the impression that the three pieces were actually separate at one time and were fixed together antique silver candelabras made in england . It is true that there was a general tendency to make the sideboard a single unit, but it was only when the pedestals lost their indivi-The Adam Sideboard
duality as such that the result was really a success labels under boulle furniture . The Sheraton sideboard in Fig makers of antique tea tables . 14 wheat shaped dining table base .4 exemplifies the point furniture  finmar ltd . The origin of the pedestals can just be traced, but they are essentially a part of the design as a whole “art, nouveau”"chiparus”"deer” .
The pedestals owed their origin to the lack of accommodation in the side table andres rosewood solid wood . If one refers back to the side table of Chippendale’s time in Fig chromed trestle table leg . 11 5 it is obvious that its only use was to provide standing space on its top directoire phyfe sofa . There were no drawers or cupboards in which table furniture could be kept opalescent glass perfume france . It fell to Adam to introduce the pedestals antique walnut telescooic dining table . Sometimes they were fitted up with metal grids to enable hot irons to be placed in the cupboards, so providing ? means of warming plates The urns at the top either had metal containers in which iced water was kept, or they were fitted up to hold cutlery antique rosewood armoire with claw feet . The more ornate specimens were often carved with rams’ heads, drapery, husks, and other devices selling japanese tea tables antique .
Towards the end of the century the cabriole leg practically died right out 18th century chippendale dresser . Adam never used it upholstered wood chairs from 1930s . In most cases he preferred the square tapered leg with small square feet fashion 17th century . They were usually recessed in their tapered portion, a pendant of husks often being carved in the recess near the top old gate leg table ball feet . The leg at C, Fig second hand old oak table in staffordshire . 139, shows this detail antique ladik rug . Another common treatment was to carve a series of flutes along the length, the lower part often being filled in with reeds (see A in Fig french antique occasional tables . 139)•
A particularly fine example of an Adam dining table is given in Fig important american girandole mirror . 137 english hepplewhite dressing table . It is one of a pair napoleon antique campaign chair . In use the two would be placed together, flap to flap, so forming one large table meals in eighteenth century england . The flap is supported by a single leg made to pivot frosted glass vase with smokey streaks . Thus when not required for dining the tables could be placed flat against the wall and become useful side tables antique chinese circular revolving bookcase . The decorative treatment is well worth noting antique porclean handled sheffeld flatware . The tapered legs are fluted on all sides except one, this being carved with a crisscross design set in a recess antique table round drop leaf claw foot . At the top are paterx carved with leafwork theodore haviland 1958 pattern . The fluted top rail with the plain centre part carved with swags of husks is typically Adam english stoneware marks . He invariably introduced this centre panel french meals17th century .
An example of a small side table with turned and carved legs is given in Fig furniture cupboard design,side board,wood . 138 george hepplewhite bottle case . It exemplifies well the delicate treatment of which Adam was so fond meissen porcelain animalsfrederick augustus . Note the use of the centre panel again, this time of quite plain form see a silver sauceboat with a heated base . Other kinds of Adam legs and feet are given in Fig antique glass top tea table bird . 139•

EARLY GEORGIAN PERIOD
THIS period is remarkable chiefly because mahogany as a furniture wood was first used. As early as 1715
a few pieces were made in mahogany, but it was not in general use until 1725-173o. From 1733 onwards, the tax on imported timber being abolished, mahogany came to be used exclusively. It was imported from the West Indies and was of the kind known as Spanish mahogany, a hard, heavy wood, rather inclined to be brittle, but very reliable. Early specimens were finished with linseed oil, this being coated on liberally and allowed to remain for a few days. A polish was then obtained with brickdust rubbed on with a cork. Later varnish was used.
Although in general proportions and form there was no immediate break from what had been common in the walnut period, there came almost at once many changes in detail and construction. It was not simply that a cabinet maker, used to the walnut tradition, would simply substitute mahogany for walnut, and make it otherwise just the same. There was more in it than that, and the root cause was the fact that, whereas walnut furniture was always veneered (except for such parts as legs, which had to be in the solid), mahogany was used in the solid. As a matter of fact such pieces as chairs, which in their nature had to be mostly solid, altered less than any other kinds of furniture because the construction was not affected by the change of wood.
It was pointed out in Chapter V that walnut furniture relied for its decorative effect largely upon the figuring of the grain and upon such details as crossbanding and quartering, which went naturally with veneering. The use of veneer made flat surfaces desirable, and when carving was used at all it was mostly upon the solid parts such as the legs. Now the mahogany first imported was mostly of a plain kind, with not particularly interesting figure, and this plainness must have been very obvious to people who were used to the rich figuring of walnut. Then, again, quartering as a means of decoration was impossible for this essentially belonged to veneering. A quartered panel in solid wood would inevitably twist out of shape and split. Crossbanding again, although not impossible in the solid, was not specially desirable, because it would not stand out well as the grain was not strongly marked.
It therefore became obvious to the cabinet makers that a new form of treatment was necessary for mahogany, and as
FIG. 102. STAGES IN
EVOLUTION OF CHAIR
BACKS.
The development from the
hooped Queen Anne shape
with urn splat is shown
above.
FIG. 103 (right). -
ANY CHAIR WITH CAB-
RIOLE LEGS CARVED
WITH ACANTHUS LEAF-
WORK.
.
a consequence there was a return to the panelled type of door in which the different levels of the panel and the moulding of the framework broke up what would otherwise have been a wide, uninteresting expanse. Carving, too, was revived as a means of decoration, though of a quite different type from that of its last period of popularity in the late seventeenth century.
Fig. tot shows a press made entirely of solid mahogany (except for such parts as drawer sides and so on which are of oak), and it exemplifies well many of these points. The doors, for example, have grooved-in panels of the raised type ; that is, they have a wide chamfer all round at the front, this helping to break up the plainness and add interest.

Use of Veneer Discontinued
Then, again, the drawers stand forward from the front of the carcase and have a thumb moulding worked round, so making their shape well defined, and at the same time helping to make them dustproof. In the best class work the mouldings would probably have been carved—they were never cross-grained as in the walnut work for the same reason that crossbanding was discontinued, the grain was too plain to stand out.
FIG. 104. MAHOGANY SIDE TABLE WITH MARBLE TOP AND CABRIOLE
LEGS.
A bow 1730-
Although made in mahogany this table has many features belonging to the walnut
period, particularly in the shells and pendant husks carved on the knees of the
cabriole legs.
Presses of this kind became general in this first half of the eighteenth century. They were exceptionally deep and gave excellent accommodation. The upper portion was generally fitted with oak trays made to slide forwards, extension runners being fitted to the inside of the doors to give support when withdrawn. Sometimes the doors had what is known as the rule joint at the hingeing edge. It was a similar arrangement to that used in the tops of gate-leg tables of Jacobean times, the sides of the cupboard having a quarter-round shape or moulding at the front edge, and the door a corresponding hollow, so that the one worked in the other as the door was opened. It had its value from the decorative point of view, though the reason for its use was mainly a technical one, since it made the doors flush with the inner surfaces of the sides when opened, so enabling the trays to slide closely between them.
The chair is typical of the upholstered form inade at the time. Note that the winged sides and scrolled arms are similar to those of Queen Anne’s time (compare it with the walnut chair in Fig. 79, P. 101) One feature in which it differs is the carving on the knees and feet of the cabriole

4
FIG. 105. CARVED GILT SIDE TABLE WITH MARBLE TOP,
About 1735•
This table was probably by William Kent, an architect who designed furniture for his houses. It was of an elaborate kind, architectural in character, and a complete departure from the traditional kind being
generally made at the period.
legs. This takes the form of a lion’s head and paw, details used for the first time in the early Georgian period. Other new motifs were the eagle heads with claw feet, masks, and the cabochon detail which resembled the detail of a precious stone cut without facets. At the same time the claw and ball foot continued to be popular, as shown in the dining chair in Fig. 103. Note that here a new detail is the carving of the knee, which takes the form of acanthus leafwork scrolling from the ear pieces down to the centre.
Fig. 102 is of particular interest in that it shows the development from the full Queen Anne rounded back to the straight top rail in common use by the middle of the century. In the left hand example the upright has the typical inward sweep immediately above the seat, and at the top it has a fairly full round sweeping towards the centre. Note, too, that the splat is solid. In the next example the inward sweep is omitted in the uprights, and the curve at the top has become more acute. The splat, too, is pierced. In the third illustration the top rail is more or less flat and the upright has only the slightest curve.
In these early Georgian days there was no such thing as a sideboard. Instead a side table was used, this usually having a marble top, as in the example in Fig. 104. This, although made in mahogany and dating from about 173o, has typical I( walnut ” features, especially in the use of the carved shell and husks on the cabriole legs. We shall see later that the sideboard, as we now know it, was evolved from the side table, separate pedestals first being added to give better accommodation. Later these were joined up to make a single piece. The illustration on P. 4 shows the stages of evolution through which it passed.
An architect who began to make a name for himself in George I’s reign was William Kent, and as he designed a certain amount of furniture for his houses we may conveniently take note of his work here. Kent had travelled in Italy, and on his return was an enthusiastic follower of the Palladian style which had become fashionable in architecture. He was a man of considerable ability, but so far as his furniture was concerned he seemed to strike a foreign note in the scheme of things. It was of a ponderous, extravagant kind, rather the sort of thing one might expect to find in the entrance hall of a theatre than in an ordinary dwelling house. Elaborately scrolled legs, bold masses of carving, heavy classical mouldings, marble tops, and the free use of gilding all seem to suggest that the work would have been better carried out in marble rather than wood.
Fig. 105 shows a side table in the Kent style in which this magnificent treatment is exemplified. It is the work of an architect not familiar with the technique of woodwork. No practical cabinet maker would ever have attempted to design such a piece, and it in no way represents a stage in the evolution of the sideboard. It is just the work of an individualist and seems to fall outside the general scheme of things.

CHAIRS AND STOOLS
The chair as we left it in our chapter on Jacobean work was still a sturdily built piece of work though tending to
DETAILS OF THE CONSTRUCTION DRAWING, FIG. 74.
A. Queen Anne tallboy made in two separate parts.
B. Section through the built-up cross-grained cornice.
C. How thin oak back is fixed on.
D. Side viewof drawer showing dovetails.
E. Cut -away view with construction of carcase and drawer.
become lighter. A few were made with stuffed seats, and occasionally upholstered backs were added, but for the most part they were entirely of wood—or possibly were fitted with a leather seat stretched over the rails. This, though being softer than wood, could hardly be called upholstery.
After the middle of the century there arose a custom of using cane for the better type of chair back, and rushes for the commoner type. Upholstery, too, was used, though this did not become really popular until the reign of William and Mary. We may mention here that springs were never used. As a matter of passing interest, it was not until the nineteenth century that these came into use.
Twist Turning.—Caning is usually associated with the tall-back chairs which became popular during the second half of the seventeenth century, and this brings us to an interesting development, that of twist turning. Until about1625 or so only plain, straightforward turning had been attempted. The work was mounted in a curious contrivance known as the pole lathe, over which a long springy pole (hence the name) was suspended from a bracket in the wall. To the end of the pole was fixed a rope which stretched down to a drum attached to the chuck. It was taken a turn around

this and then down to a treadle. Thus when the operator depressed the treadle the work was revolved in a forward motion and the pole above was bent downwards. When the pressure on the treadle was released the pole sprang back, turning the work in the opposite direction.
It is obvious from this that the actual cutting could be done whilst the work was revolving forwards only, and when one considers the toughness of English oak, and the large size in which many of the old bulbous turnings were made, it is not surpri3ing that the turners did not go in a great deal for experiment. However, some ingenious craftsman, probably noticing the spiral made by his gouge as he passed it rapidly along the surface, did try his hand at forming a spiral or twist, and by a combination of pre-

liminary sawing out, rough turning, and use of carving tools to finish off, produced a rather uneven sort of twist.
It was not an easy business, however, one of the chief difficulties being that of making the same number of twists on each of a set of legs, and as a consequence twist turning did not make a great deal of progress until someone thought of making an attachment which would carry the gouge along sideways at a predetermined rate, which was set in accordance with the rate of revolutions of the work. In this way any number of turnings could be made, all exactly alike. There still are a few of these old pole lathes in use in the outlying districts of Buckinghamshire, where turnings for chairs are still made on a large scale.
A chair with twist turnings was given in Fig. 64 on p. 82, and in this we see the passing out of the old oak tradition. Chair making suffered something of a decline in the third quarter of the seventeenth century, at any rate from the point of view of construction. Instead of the seat rails being strongly tenoned between the legs, they were merely placed on top with no stronger attachment than a dowel

turned at the top of the legs. The same thing applied to the top rail of the back, which was simply fitted to dowels at the ends of the uprights. This detail is shown clearly in the chair in Fig. 75, though in this case the front seat rail is still tenoned between the legs.
This chair is fairly typical of the tall-back which persisted until the end of the seventeenth century. Turning was used considerably, even for the tops of the shaped front legs, and it is interesting to note that the back legs splay backwards. Even the early tall-backs did not have this detail, and if ever it were essential in any chair it was in one which was essentially lightly built and had a high back. For a man to lean back even slightly would be dangerous.

The legs are interesting in that they foreshadow the cabriole leg which was shortly to become popular, though when examined closely it is seen that they consist actually of a number of scrolls joined together with floral and leaf carving. Scroll work of this kind was used widely in chairs and stands of all kinds. It is seen in the front stretcher rail and in the back of that in Fig. 75.
Chairs with Cabriole Legs.—The introduction of the cabriole leg seemed to strike a new note in the design of chairs. It was not simply that a new motif was being used, but that the whole conception of the design became altered. Compare, for example, the two chairs on p. 98. It is obvious that the one has turned uprights whilst the other has shaped ones, but, in addition, there is an entirely new spirit in that in Fig. 76. In the earlier example, Fig. 75, one is conscious of a series of parts jointed together in an obvious sort of way. It is not suggested that this is a fault, but simply that the construction is at once apparent. One can count up the parts—two uprights, cresting rail, lower rail, seat rail, stretcher, and so on. And the earlier the chair the more obvious the parts and their purpose becomes.
Now turn to Fig. 76. It is not easy to see where the uprights and the top rail of the back begin and end. They merge one into the other, and the same thing applies to the slat and the rail beneath. The back is one whole, so to speak, and we shall find that this feeling becomes still more apparent in later chairs.
Reverting to the legs again, these are an early form of the cabriole type, and exemplify the Dutch influence which the accession of William of Orange brought with it. The probability is that many of these chairs were the work of foreign craftsmen who settled down here. A cabriole leg is by no means an easy thing to make, and it is doubtful whether a native craftsman could have turned out a really fine shape without previous experience. The awkward point about making the leg is that it is difficult to set down the true shape on paper. It can be drawn at the front, side, and possibly three-quarter positions, but the actual leg is seen from all angles and is normally viewed from above, a viewpoint which the drawing does not present.
Furthermore, in the very nature of the work the guiding lines on the wood are cut away as the work proceeds,

because the whole thing is more or less rounded in section. In actual practice the leg is cut out of a square right through to the over-all shape when looked at from the front. A corresponding shape is cut at the side, this producing a square cut shape. The point to realise is that the cutting

of the first shape automatically removes the lines of the second shape, and it is only by temporarily replacing the sawn-away parts that the shape can be cut true. In any case the resulting shape has only a distant resemblance to the finished line, and it is in the final shaping that experience is needed, because there are no square lines to which to work. Everything is curved in both directions, and it is only by eye that a really fine shape can be produced, one which looks well when seen from every angle. The whole thing is complicated when carving is to appear, because sufficient thickness has to be allowed for this, and the presence of these plain lumps is apt, to give a false impression of the shape as a whole.
We have gone into these practical points at some length because the cabriole leg became so characteristic a feature of

furniture for the following seventy-five years or so. Really fine legs are few and far between, the majority being overdone in the shape, and we shall find that they deteriorated considerably after Queen Anne’s reign until rescued by the school of Chippendale.
In the present instance, Fig. 76, it will be noticed that the legs terminate in a hoof foot, whilst at the top the sides are scrolled in imitation of the horns of the goat. These details are often found in William and Mary furniture, after which they gave place to the turned club foot, with which we shall meet in the next example. In the meantime it should be noted that the legs are still linked together with stretcher rails. It is true that the last-named are on an altogether lighter scale than in earlier pieces (see Fig. 64) and are gracefully shaped, but the chairmaker has not yet felt confident enough to omit them entirely, which was the next stage in the development of the chair.
Another feature of the chair in Fig. 76 met with for the first time is the curve in the rake of the back, and it is interesting to glance at the diagram in Fig. 78, which shows the various stages of development. There is the earliest straight post (J) cut from a square of timber and continuing from leg to back in a straight line. This was used mostly in the old settles of Gothic times (see Fig. 14, p. 23). Then came the idea of setting the back at an angle (K), a phase which lasted until past the middle of the seventeenth century. An example is given in Fig. 37, P. SO. In the same period in a few chairs little blocks were added at the bottom as at L to help to counterbalance the weight. This is exemplified in Fig. 18, P. 25. Next, the legs were at last splayed as at M, though the back still remained straight without any curve (see Fig. 65, P. 82). N gives the next development, as in the chair in Fig. 76, whilst 0 shows the shape which the majority of chairs in the later eighteenth century had, of which Fig. 102 is an example.
A last point to note about the chair in Fig. 76 is the shaped splat. This was something quite fresh (see last example in Fig. 75), and had certain definite stages in development. It is shown in the armchair in Fig. 77 in its most characteristic form. Apart from its shaped edges it follows the general line of the back when viewed from the side.
These two chairs in Fig. 77 exemplify the walnut period in its fullest stage of development in the Queen Anne period. That to the left is especially characteristic in the shape of the back, the splat, and the full cabriole legs with turned club feet. Note that the back is appreciably lower and that the shaping of the uprights has become more pronounced, especially in the rounded shape at the top. The splat, too, is entirely solid and has an urn-like formation.
The fact that the backs were shaped in both front and side elevations made them extremely expensive to produce, and it was for this reason that the square back type to the right in Fig. 77 was made for a more economical job. The uprights merely taper and they are quite straight in their rake. In the best chairs, however, the full shaping was given, and on some models the back was entirely veneered with cross-grain walnut. Another feature to note is the entire absence of stretcher rails.
Just as the development in the shape of the rake of the
.
back can be followed in a series of stages, so the plain shape of the seats developed on certain characteristic lines. These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 78, from the square boxlike formation of early Tudor times to the tapering shape of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and the elaborately shaped seats of walnut furniture. Later on there was a return to the simpler form.

One other innovation in the walnut period in connection with the seats was the loose drop-in variety shown in Fig. 77

to the right. These were not used exclusively, the ” stuff-over ” method (left in Fig. 77) being also used frequently.
The development of upholstery has already been mentioned, and in Fig. 79 we have the fully upholstered arm-chair of about 1705. The projecting wings and the scrolled arms are especially characteristic, and bear out the prevailing popularity of shaped work.
.
Stools.—The two stools in Fig. 8o are of the William and Mary (left) and Queen Anne (right) periods. In the earlier specimens the legs are actually turned, and the scrolled and recessed detail is carved out of the shape. The shaped stretchers are similar to those already shown in the chest of drawers in Fig. 70, except that the edges are moulded instead of being square. In the Queen Anne stool the stretchers are omitted. The legs are worth noting in that they terminate with spade feet. These are carved out entirely, no turning being used. Other features often found are the shell carving on the knee with the pendant husks below, and the scrolls at the sides immediately beneath the ears.
The day-bed in the form shown in Fig. 67, P. 84, did not last into the eighteenth century. Its place was taken by the settee, which was rather like two or more chairs joined together side by side. There was sometimes a centre leg, though it was frequently omitted.

FIG. 75. TALL-BACK CHAIR WITH UPHOLSTERED SEAT.
Late 17th century.
Note that the top back rail is simply pegged to the turned uprights. The legs which are suggestive of the cabriole shape are in reality a series of scrolls.
FIG.76. WILLIAM AND MARY
CHAIR.
Late 17th century.
The back shows the hoop form in its embryo stage. It has the appearance of a complete thing in itself instead of consisting of uprights, cross rails and slats as in Fig. 75 above.
The legs have the hoof foot and scrolled ears In Imitation of the goat’s horns.

FIG. 77. WALNUT CHAIRS WITH CABRIOLE LEGS AND CLUB FEET.
Early 18th century.
The left-hand example exemplifies the development of double shaped work in
the hooped back. In the less expensive chair to the right the back is raked only,
with no shaping at the front. Note the use of the urn-shaped splat in both
examples.

FIG. 79. UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR.
Early i8th century.
Although thickly padded, these chairs were
never fitted with springs. The last named
belong to the 19th century.

FIG. 80. STOOLS OF THE WALNUT PERIOD.
Late 17th century.    Early z8th century.
The legs of the left-hand stool are turned and the carving is cut into the turning.
Note the omission of the stretcher in the right-hand stool. The shell and husk
carving is typical.

FIG. 81. SMALL BUREAU AND BUREAU WITH CUPBOARD.
Late 17th century.    Early 18th century.
The inverted cup shape of the turned legs in the small bureau shows the William and Mary period. The mirrored doors of the cupboard in the right-hand example were a common feature in Queen Anne pieces of this kind.

FIG. 82. SMALL WALNUT WRITING TABLE.
Early 18th century.
This exemplifies well the way in which the construction
was entirely concealed by the use of veneer. The apron
piece beneath the drawers is often seen in Queen Anne
tables.

FIG. 83. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD SECRETAIRE.
Early 18th century.
The front of the upper carcase is hinged so that it drops down and Corms a
writing top. The inside is fitted up for stationery.

FIG. 84. WALNUT VENEERED CHINA CABINET.
Early 18th century.
The barred doors owed their origin to the difficulty of producing glass In
large panes. They were cross-grained with a rib at the back.

FIG. 85. CHINA CABINET WITH BARRED DOORS ON STAND.
Late 171h century.
The craze for collecting china encouraged by Queen Mary was the cause
of the introduction of the china cabinet.

SOFAS IN THE EARLY 19th century: ENGLISH REGENCY SOFA, DANISH DAY BED, AUSTRIAN BIEDERMEIER SOFA, AMERICAN SHERATON SOFA, FRENCH EMPIRE CANAPE.

SOFAS IN THE EARLY 19th century
reached new levels of comfort. Except for the rusbank in the Cape, they were nearly always entirely upholstered, often in silk damask. As a result, the antique motifs that were frequently used on the open backs of chairs of this period were confined to the uprights and top rails of sofas. Similarly because of their weight, the use of splayed legs was less common on sofas than on chairs. At the beginning of the period, the sofa sides tended to be straight or were carved with Neoclassical motifs such as sphinxes. Later, they began to scroll outwards; the sides of a William IV sofa, for example, were often S-shaped.
During the early 19th century there was a revived interest in the day bed and chaise longue. These elegant pieces had a scrolling form and were specifically designed for reclining. They were intended for use in a
drawing room or lady’s bedroom and often had outsplayed legs with brass cappings and casters.
Typically of French Restauration design, the meridienne is a type of canape with two scroll arms, one higher than the other. In Denmark, where people still dined on sofas, meridiennes usually had cupboards on the sides where utensils and glasses could be stored. Because of the nature of their use and the ease with which they could be chipped, sofas were more often made from plain wood rather than completely created in gilt.
As the upholstered surfaces of sofas are particularly susceptible to wear and tear, it is unusual to find pieces from this time with their original
fabrics. Authentic textiles included velvets, silks, damasks, and chintzes. Sprung seats were introduced in this period, bringing a new level of comfort to seating furniture.

The squab cushion provides extra comfort.
The canape has four straight legs at the front and four sabre legs at the back.
Carved sphinx detail
The moulded top rail
has carved lions’
heads at the comers.
The sphinxes have female heads and wings, which form the armrests of the canape.
FRENCH EMPIRE CANAPE
The padded back of this three-seater canape has a straight, moulded top rail, which continues down to form two of the back legs. The front legs and arms are carved in the form of Egyptian sphinxes and terminate in lion’s-paw feet. The
canape seat and back are upholstered in tan suede with black and tan piping and braid. Attributed to the Jacob brothers, this is part of a large suite comprising two canapes, six armchairs, and a pair of stools. c.1800.

This meridienne sofa is typical of its kind, in having one end slightly higher than the other, and is probably French. It is veneered with rosewood and the plinth, supports, and feet are decoratively inlaid with stylized arabesques and
scrolling foliate motifs in a lighter wood. The seat, back, and sides of the piece are generously padded and upholstered in a Neoclassical striped fabric in light green, cream, and gold. The scrolling supports and plinth are supported on volute feet. c.1830.
SWEDISH SOFA
This large, wide, solid sofa has a gently shaped top rail with simple moulding and applied, gilded rosettes at the centre. The form of the sofa is almost entirely rectilinear, with rectangular padded armrests and eight wide,
square-section legs standing on block feet. The seat is upholstered in a striped fabric and is supported on a deep, plain seat rail decorated at intervals with applied rosettes. The sofa is based on a design by Carl Fredrik Sundvall for Skottorp, a manor house in Blekinge, Sweden.
This simulated rosewood and gilt-metal mounted chaise longue has a scrolled three-quarter back and ends and sabre legs. Early 19th century.

SWEDISH PAINTED SETTEE
AMERICAN SHERATON SOFA
This late Gustavian painted and upholstered settee has a rectangular back with three loose cushions. The side panels have circular turned supports, flanking central cross-form supports a frieze with Neoclassical decoration.
The upholstered cushion seat is supported on a carved laurel-leaf frieze and raised on 16 slender, circular, turned legs with long leaf banding. 1800 -10.
This small, inlaid mahogany and flame birch sofa has a sloping top rail with a central raised tablet. The tablet has a contrasting ellipse within an inlaid outline. The edge of the top rail is capped with reeding, which continues
on the downsloping arms. Each arm rests on a reeded baluster support and is supported on tapering, reeded legs. The legs are headed by inlaid panels and terminate in spade feet.
Early 19th century.

AMERICAN NEOCLASSICAL SOFA
This carved mahogany sofa, from the Mid Atlantic States, has a shaped top rail with S-shaped corners, and back-scrolled arms. The upholstered back, sides, and seat are raised on a bolection seat rail, which is supported
on lion’s-paw feet, richly carved with foliage at the knees. The upholstery is not original. Early 19th century.
AUSTRIAN BIEDERMEIER SOFA
This Viennese sofa has a walnut-veneered, partially ebonized frame, and an upholstered seat, arms, and back. It has a high, straight back and outswept, scrolling arms, and is raised on four splayed legs. The upholstery
has a striped, floral design. It has a notably lighter effect than the Anglo-French examples. 1820-30.
The rectangular back of this rosewood-framed Regency sofa has a leaf-carved cresting above square, upholstered arms with moulded terminals. The sofa has a squab seat and is raised on a channel-moulded seat rail. The
whole stands on turned, reeded, tapering feet with brass caps and casters. 1820-30.
DANISH DAY BED
This Danish Louis XVI elmwood day bed has a rectangular, upholstered seat between outscrolled, vertical, slat armrests. With a bolster cushion at either end, the day bed is raised on six square, tapered, and fluted
legs. Unlike a chaise longue, a day bed does not have a back. c.1800.
ENGLISH REGENCY SOFA