Posts Tagged ‘antique’

In the first years of the loth century dress
fashions did not change drastically, and
cluster and small pendent earrings
characteristic of the last decade of the 19th century continued to be popular. The few drop earrings produced were of moderate size and in ‘garland’ style, that is, characterized by very delicate garland and fluttering bow motifs, usually mounted with diamonds in millegrain settings. The source of inspiration lay in i 8th-century France, especially decorative and architectural details such as ormolu furniture fittings and cornices and stucco mouldings. Cartier in particular encouraged his designers to wander through the streets of Paris studying and sketching architectural details. Typical of earrings in this style was the pear-shaped drop, with a coloured gemstone or a diamond briolette, mounted as a swing centre within a garland of small, delicate leaf and flower motifs on a ribbon bow surmount. Other fashionable earrings assumed the form of diamond or coloured stone briolettes on fine articulated chains of millegrain-set diamonds.
Before the First World War
The delicacy of these jewels was enhanced by extensive use of platinum, a white, untarnishable precious metal which was heavy, hard to work and difficult to solder but of great structural strength so that only a little of it was required to produce a sturdy mount.
The desire to set diamonds in a mount whose colour did not alter their whiteness had been felt as early as the 18th century, and since then the traditional metal for diamond setting had been silver. The relative softness of silver, though, required a large amount of metal for the mount and had the great disadvantage of staining the skin and clothing. To overcome the problem, 19th-century jewellers devised a new kind of setting consisting of a laminate of silver and gold: silver at the front so as to set off the colour of the stone to best effect, and gold at the back for extra strength and to prevent the silver from tarnishing. Although platinum had been known as early as the 16th century in Colombia, it had not been extensively used in jewellery before the turn of the century because of the difficulties involved in working it, but from then on it became the favourite metal of the jeweller, and earrings set mainly in platinum were produced until the 1940s.
Around 1915 one can discern a change in the design of earrings from the garland
126 type to a form that anticipates features of 192os earrings. They tend to become longer
and their typical form is that of an elongated baton-shaped motif usually set with dia-
monds, supporting a drop, often a pearl or a larger millegrain-set diamond. Of
course the majority of these earrings continue to possess features typical of earlier
periods: they are entirely white, set with diamonds and pearls, in accordance with the
general preference for monochromatic and pale coloured jewels in vogue since the
late 19th century, and furthermore they continue to display the characteristic delicate
A pair of diamond pendent earrings in the garland style, circa i goo.
millegrain settings and fine foliate details. On the other hand the pronounced elongation and geometrical details foreshadow the designs of the following decade. They also well suited the female silhouette as recently redesigned by the Parisian couturier Paul Poiret, who liberated women from corsets with the introduction of fluid, high-waisted dresses. The emphasis in fashion was on straight, vertical lines which were counterbalanced by long sautoirs and long pendent earrings. An example of earrings where old and new features coexist is a pair of French platinum and diamond pendent earrings. The overall design and the millegrain settings conform to the garland style, while the size and length of the drop, and the geometrical mitre-shaped surmount anticipate earrings of the 1920S. Another interesting example is the elaborate pair of chandelier-design earrings, where the floral and foliate design is typical of the garland style but the size and tassel motifs are already Art Deco in spirit.
It was during these years that the screw fitting to clamp the earring to the lobe, which had first been developed in the last years of the i 9th century, gained popularity. Its advantage over traditional types of fitting was that it avoided the necessity of piercing the lobe, a practice which had begun to be regarded as barbaric. This was symptomatic of the general move towards liberating women from traditional constraints, exemplified in the field of fashion by the rejection of harmful items of clothing such as tightly laced corsets, and in social and political life by the movement to establish votes for women.
Decade by decade: the 1920s
The outbreak of the First World War in 191 ¢ brought a sudden end to the frivolous period of the Belle Epoque. Jewellery production ceased: precious metals and gemstones became scarce; platinum, an important material for the manufacture of nitric acid for explosives and for engine magnetos, disappeared from jewellery workshops; craftsmen turned their skills from jewellery to the armament industry, and women were forced to take up the jobs left vacant by men called to the front. By the end of the war in 1918, the newly emancipated women had adopted an androgynous look: they had shortened their dresses and cut their hair ‘d la garconne’ thus dispensing for the first time in history with what St Paul called their ‘crowning glory.’ Consequently earrings, more than ever, came to play a role of paramount importance by filling the gap between the bob and the shoulders, echoing the simple vertical line of the dress while adding a touch of frivolity and femininity to the new masculine look. During the 192os earrings undoubtedly became the most important form of jewellery, as can be seen in contemporary portraiture, photographs, advertisements, theatre and fashion designs, such as those by Jeanne Lanvin. Furthermore, the great number of surviving 192os earrings indicates both their popularity and copious production.
The common characteristic of all earrings of the early and mid-192os was their very pronounced vertical and geometrical line and the use of enamels and gemstones realized by the combination of precious gemstones such as emeralds, rubies, sapph-

ires and diamonds with semiprecious stones such as onyx, coral, jade, rock crystal,
turquof striking and contrasting colours. These daring new juxtapositions of colours wereoise and lapis lazuli, the latter frequently carved into cylinders, circles, oblong
P. 158 panels and drops. Good examples are the coral and onyx pendent earrings where the
bright red coral drop carved in a floral design is suspended from a long chain of black
onyx baton motifs. The interest in such vivid colours derived from Diaghilev’s Bal-
lets Russes which made such an impact on Paris and London society around 1910:
their bright juxtapositions of colours both in the costumes and stage sets shocked and
Left: a pencil and
gouache theatrical
design by Jeanne
Lanvin, October 1922. Note the long torpedo-shaped pendent
earrings.
Below: a pencil and gouache fashion design by Jeanne Lanvin, March 1924• Note the elongated carved coral torped-shaped pendent
earrings.fascinated audiences and at the same time set the tone for the jewellery and fashion of the following decade.
Besides novel and striking combinations of colour, there were innovative features in the setting and cut of stones. The favourite new style of setting gems was the `pave’, in which the gems paved the whole surface of the mount. This was often achieved by cutting the stones to fit the required shape of the mount and of the decorative pattern. It is clearly visible in the long pendent earrings designed by Boucheron, where emeralds, rubies and sapphires are cut with domed surfaces to fit into the stylized floral design on a diamond ground. It is interesting to note that besides the interest in contrasting colours emphasis was also placed on the difference between matt and polished surfaces, something that can be seen once again in the illustrated earrings by Boucheron; diamonds provide a sparkling surface while the coloured gemstones provide the matt.
It is not surprising that earrings such as these, possessing most of the novel features of the time (the pronounced elongated line, the stylized, almost geometrical, floral pattern and the juxtaposition of colour and texture) were selected for the Exposition International des Arts D6coratifs et Industrielles Modernes in 1925, an exhibition held in Paris with the purpose of presenting to the public novel and modern design. It is from the abbreviated title of the exhibition, ‘Art Deco’, that the popular name for the style of the mid- i 92os and early 193os derives.
Although jewellers working in this style found sources of inspiration in the artistic traditions of countries as exotic and far apart as Egypt and China, Persia and India or Japan, the most influential eastern tradition for earrings was that of China. Chinese jade plaques carved and pierced in traditional Chinese motifs of gourds, leaves and peonies, and symbolic Chinese ‘Bl’ were imported directly from the East and mounted by famous western jewellers as long earring pendants. The great popularity of this type of earring is demonstrated by its appearance in numerous variations in the pages of earring designs of the time by Cartier London. Green jade combined with stones such as onyx and diamonds suited the striking colour schemes of Art Deco —green, black and white — and offered an interesting combination of matt and polished surfaces. Besides exploiting Chinese-crafted materials, jewellers also frequently included in their earrings imitative Chinese motifs such as stylized pagodas and lanterns. The latter is clearly recognizable in the design of a pair of French emerald and diamond pendent earrings of the mid- 19 2os reproduced here.
Another feature typical of pendent earrings of this time is that they are always mounted in platinum and, unlike some earlier types of earrings, are provided with stud rather than screw fittings. These consist of a prong soldered at the back of the earring, which is inserted into the pierced earlobe and secured by a small, usually hexagonal, plate. It is released by a spring mechanism triggered by pressing a little metal tongue projecting from the edge of the plate. This new type of fitting was more secure, and was desirable for several reasons. Firstly, women now led a much more active and dynamic life, and precious earrings might be worn at night while dancing to the frenetic rhythms of the Charleston; secondly, they were very fragile: as has been mentioned, a great number of earrings were set with long thin plaques carved in semiprecious stones such as jade, which could crack if dropped; and thirdly, it was unobtrusive, a most important feature now that the back of the ear was visible with the newly cropped bob. All Cartier’s examples seem to have been attached in this way.
In the late 1920S long pendent earrings continued in favour, but they can be distinguished from their earlier counterparts by their fuller, usually triangular or lozenge-shaped outline reminiscent of a chandelier, hence the name ‘chandelier
P. 153 earrings’. This tendency is clearly visible in the magnificent pair of pearl and diamond earrings made by Cartier in London in 1928. Their shape is undoubtedly inspired by a crystal chandelier with central drop, stylized sconces and candles. A
P. 16o, second development is the gradual submergence of colours, to be replaced by the
r61 whiteness of pearl and diamonds. Contrast was achieved by combining in the setting a variety of diamonds of different cuts: baguettes, marquise, trapeze, crescent-, triangular-, pear-shaped, and brilliant-cut diamond, all of which reflect light in different ways. Coloured gemstones did not entirely disappear; a beautiful example is the bell-shaped pair of earrings set with diamonds and Indian ruby beads, by Dray-son of London. It is interesting to note how the choice of the gemstone influences the design of the earring, reminiscent of a bell-shaped Jaipur enamel ear pendant.
Towards the end of the decade the decorative arts were inspired by motifs deriving from industry and mechanical instruments: stylized motifs of nuts and bolts set with diamonds appear in earrings. Versatility became appreciated and jewels were constructed to be worn in different ways: a pair of bracelets could be combined to form a fashionable bandeau or sautoir and earrings could be combined together on a brooch mount, as in the last example shown on p. 159•
The 1930s
The 193os are characterized by a revolutionary innovation in the history of earrings:
the clip fitting. From Antiquity to the beginning of the loth century, the only way of
wearing an earring was to insert it or its suspension hook in a hole pierced in the lobe.
As we have already seen, in the early loth century the practice of piercing ears came
to be considered barbaric, and this prompted the use of the screw fitting as an altern-
ative. But although this did avoid piercing the lobe, it was not adequate to support
heavy earrings. The clip fitting of the 193os finally allowed women to wear heavy
earrings without piercing their ears, and moreover, by securely clasping the lobe,
enabled the earring for the first time to expand upward to decorate the upper part of
64, the ear. Rosettes, stylized flowerheads, shells, cornucopias, ribbons, spirals, comets,
165 stylized wings and curled leaves decorating the upper lobe were among the favourite
earclips. In many cases, the upward curl of the design following the natural line of
the ear meant designing one earclip for the right ear and another for the left, so that A pair of stained blue chalcedony, sapphire and diamond earclips, probably by Belperron, circa 1935, each designed as a foliate motif, from the collection of jewellery of the Duchess of Windsor.
they were not interchangeable. The advertisement for Boucheron in the magazine Femina of March 1934 underlines the elegance of the new compact diamond earrings; they were well suited to the hairstyles of the time, which could either be short or long but had the hair gathered at the top or back in a bun and brushed away from the ears in fluid waves.
The ever fashionable hoop earring was also adapted to the new fitting: an open circle securely clipped to the lobe, giving the impression of passing through a nonexistent hole. These clips, continuing the late 1920S trend, were set with variously cut diamonds in white metal mounts: white monochromatic jewels were still all the rage, coloured precious and semiprecious stones being used only sparingly to pick out the design. They often came as a set with the most characteristic jewel of the 1930s, the double-clip brooch the design of which they repeated on a reduced scale.
Although compact earclips were most popular at the time, the fashion for pendent earrings never completely died out and sometimes these 193os earclips were provided with a pendant, a tassel, a drop, or a cascade of ribbons which could be attached to the lower part of the clip to make it more suitable for formal occasions, thus continuing the use of ‘versatile’ jewellery.
For evening wear during this period, long pendent earrings, again set with multicoloured gemstones, were in favour, their voluminous shapes distinguishing them quite clearly from 192os examples. They tend to expand along the horizontal axis and lose the typical vertical character of the previous decade. Different and unusual cuts for the stones continued to be exploited for coloured stones as well as for diamonds, a good example being the two pairs of pendent earrings by Cartier London, 1931-32, set with aquamarines. By the late 193os established firms were already anticipating motifs and designs which were to gain importance in the following decade. This is well exemplified by the pair of citrine and diamond pendent earrings made in 1937 by Cartier London, which are long and voluminous in form, set in yellow gold with diamonds and citrines of various shades of russet and golden yellow, something which heralds the use in I 940s jewellery of attractive coloured gemstones of comparatively low intrinsic value — citrine, aquamarines, amethysts.
The 1940s
By 194o earclips were predominant everywhere. They had large gold surfaces, replacing those set with diamonds, and more sculptural shapes such as fluttering ribbon bows, bouquets of flowers and fan-shaped motifs in contrast to the geometrical lines of the 193os. After forty years of the supremacy of platinum in jewellery, gold came back on a large scale, and it is interesting to look at major jewellers’ archives, where the transition from platinum to gold coincides with the new decade. This is very clear in the records of Boucheron Paris, where earrings produced until August 1938 are mounted in platinum, but from then on always in yellow gold. The preference for gold in jewellery also had an economic reason: at the outbreak of the war platinum was again requisitioned by the armaments industry and the jeweller had to make the most of the scarce gold on the market. The regulations controlling the use of precious metals were extremely strict, especially in France. Anyone who wished to commission a piece of jewellery in gold had to supply the raw material of which twenty per cent would go to the state. Consequently jewellery was made of very thin gold, frequently of low carat. At the same time, the irregular supply of precious gemstones, such as diamonds from South Africa and rubies and sapphires from Burma and Siam, caused a scarcity on the market. This prompted the resetting of gemstones mounted in older pieces of jewellery and the widespread use of synthetic rubies and sapphires. When precious stones were used they were either small and inexpensive or (in the case of sapphires and rubies) synthetic. Semiprecious gemstones were favoured — topaz, aquamarine, amethyst and citrine being relatively cheap yet often large in size and highly effective. In spite of the great difficulties in the turmoil of war, jewellery remained a valuable source of portable capital, and therefore went on being designed, produced and sold. The angular geometrical designs of the late 1930s were not entirely discontinued. This may be seen in mitre-shaped earclips, where the accentuated geometrical design corresponds with 193o earclips, but the choice of stones, usually citrines and small rubies, heralds the new style. As in all periods of transition one finds old and new elements merging together.
The change is clearly visible if one looks at a page of Boucheron’s archival records.
P 171 Among the designs registered for 193 8 one finds earclips characterized by rigid and geometric forms (such as no. 11.306 and no. 35.354216) and a severe linear inverted U-shaped earclip, set with calibre-cut rubies. From 1940 onwards all the designs are naturalistic, and the success and popularity of the curled leaf earclip in polished gold is attested by its consecutive orders. According to the records this model was repeated and sold 14 times from December 1941 to September 1945. Another motif was an attractive gem-set flower spray held together by fluttering rib-
p. 167 bon ties. All the naturalistic earclips are fairly compact in form, filling the lobe or following the contour of the ear. Characteristically they continue to present rather stiff features lacking movement and fluidity: the ribbon ties knotted in bows are always realized in wide surfaces of polished gold which contribute to a bold and static impression. Other favoured motifs displaying similar characteristics are rosettes and plain ribbon bows such as in the design by Mauboussin, rosette and ribbons combined together, and scrolled drape motifs. A particularly striking example of the lat-
e. 166 ter type was produced by Hoeffer & Trabert, the American branch of Mauboussin; they are typically asymmetrical and rigid in design with a scrolled surface of polished white gold and a large step-cut aquamarine at the centre, the border set with small rubies and diamonds. They are accompanied by a large brooch of identical design set with an extremely large central aquamarine, which reflects an American preference for large and flamboyant jewels. The set of earclips and matching brooch or clip is a typical feature of this period. Such heavy brooches, worn on the lapel of tailored suits, had completely supplanted the double clip brooch which had been so popular in the 1930s.
Though compact earclips were the favourite type of ear ornament, pendent earrings were not completely dismissed. The extant examples and records in archives indicate that the pendent element is often very flimsy compared to the bold surmount often consisting of two chains with various terminations such as a cone or gold beads. One sees this, for instance, in earclip with a gold scrolled surmount supporting fine chain drops, which have to be regarded more as minor decorative elements than as pendants in their own right since they are not at all in proportion with the volume of the surmount. Again this is visible in earrings by Mellerio, both those made in 1946, set with a large topaz held by two chains tied in a knot which hang down as pendants, and those of stylized cornucopia design of 1947 which suspend five bead chains. Further evidence may be found in Boucheron’s archive designs of 1943, where tubular chains of articulated links form the pendent element of entwined ribbon surmounts. Besides earrings, necklaces and bracelets were often decorated with chain tassels similar to those found on pendent earrings. A few earrings with more voluminous pendants were also created, such as those formed of two chains of gold graduated disc motifs by Boucheron, or the ‘Ferroniere’ earrings of 1944 by Mellerio, designed as a graduated line of curled gold wire. Although attractive, these long earrings did not gain the same popularity as the compact earclips.
In the mid-194os there was a vogue for light-hearted earrings, amusing and frivolous designs like the small pendent watches with the dial in a border of calibre-cut sapphires designed by Van Cleef & Arpels, or miniature buckle and belt motifs commonly known asj’arretieres.
As the 194os decade was coming to its close, earclips began to show greater movement and lightness, with gold surfaces being broken up in woven patterns or worked into twisted rope motifs combined with coloured gemstones such as turquoises and amethysts; naturalistic patterns of flowers characterized by a greater sense of movement began to prevail over scrolled drape motifs, heralding the design of the new decade made between 1945 and 1950., the 195os.
Four designs from a catalogue by Van Cleef & Arpels, Part of a page of earring design of the 1950s from Boucheron Archives, showing the variety of shapes fashionable at the time.
The 1950s
The hairstyles of the i 95os gave women complete freedom to wear their hair piled on the top of the head, knotted on the nape in a tight chignon or in short or medium-length coiffures brushed away from the ears-, all these styles were appropriate for displaying both long pendent earrings and compact clips. After a decade in which large surfaces of yellow or red gold and clips of bold, stiff and sculptural design had reigned supreme, long pendent earrings set with opulent rainfalls of diamonds in white metal mounts returned triumphantly.
The economic boom which followed the deprived war years, coupled with the desire to celebrate a return to a more relaxed and uninhibited life-style, led to the development of an aesthetic in design which aimed at free, light and functional lines. Jewellery abandoned the straight, angular lines of Art Deco, and the large bulky forms of the I 94os, and evolved new, light, curvy, aerodynamic shapes which conveyed a sense of movement. The sources of inspiration were extremely varied, as were the ways they were interpreted; naturalism, abstraction, exoticism and conventionalism happily coexisted to suit the different tastes of women, who were free to choose whatever style they preferred after the many years of uniformity of fashion during the war.
The feminine ‘new look’ launched by Dior in 1947 remained, with slight variations, in fashion for a decade, and the exuberant lines of his evening gowns characterized by narrow waists, frothy and puffy ample skirts, and above all the generous d6collet6 and pointed, heart-shaped necklines, prompted the production of a vast selection of pendent earrings of curvy, free and informal line. Diamonds were, without any doubt, the gemstone par excellence for these important creations and maintained their supremacy throughout the 195os. They suited the rich brocades, embroidered silks and precious laces of evening dresses, and were an ideal companion to the mink coat, then at the height of its popularity, by adding a touch of glitter to the face surrounded by the dark gleam of a fur collar.
The great variety of forms included all sorts of curved and fluid shaped surmounts, supporting long and voluminous articulated tassels or cascades of similarly cut diamonds. The design of the surmount was extremely varied, sometimes ngthe clip reviv-
I 1 inspiration, sometimes opting fora more naturalistic form, and
P of 1930s i
sometimes choosing abstract shapes inspired by contemporary experiments in the visual arts. Rosettes, entwined ribbons, curved leaves, flowerheads, scrolls and question marks, turbans, shooting stars and fans are just a few of the motifs for surmounts, while below would hang articulated drops reminiscent of waterfalls, cascades of leaves, festoons, waterdrops, tassels and clusters of flowers. Glittering earrings drew attention to eyes made languid and feminine by heavy lines of eyeliner pointing up at the sides. A magnificent example is that designed by Van Cleef & Arpels with a I 930s inspired rosette surmount above a rich and fluid cascade of baguette and pear-shaped diamond drops. Pearls were as much a favourite as diamonds, and earrings designed as a scrolled surmount with a pearl drop or a pearl suspended from a chain of baguette diamonds were produced in many variations. Although overshadowed by the popularity of diamonds, coloured stones such as emeralds, rubies and sapphires often added a touch of colour to otherwise monochromatic evening creations.
The metal used for these important creations de grande soir was invariably white. Platinum returned, white gold was widely used, and palladium, the lightest metal of the platinum group, made its appearance: lightness of the mount was an essential factor in the creation of these long and voluminous pendent earrings which otherwise for lightness is the practice, in the early 195os, of channel-setting small baguette diamonds in rail-like mounts, while towards the end of the decade the stones were held in place by minute claws. It was a pride of the great jewellers to create mounts where the metal was so reduced that it was practically invisible.
Although pendent earrings were the most fashionable form of ear ornament for evening wear, compact earclips were also popular, and many of the examples described above were designed so that the long drop (up to 6 or 8cms) could be detached and the surmount worn by itself. Other diamond-set short earrings assumed the shape of turbans, helixes or flowerhead clusters. A favourite design, simple yet very successful, consisted of a single pearl or mabe pearl surrounded by a foliate border of variously cut diamonds, while more elaborate examples assumed the shapes of exotic diamond flowers such as fuchsias and orchids, with a short pearl drop. A particularly
P. 174 successful model was designed by Van Cleef & Arpels in the late i 94os as a stylized fuchsia with diamond petals and short pearl drop: it gained great favour in the 1950s and its popularity continues today with slight alteration. The same may be said of the diamond-set turban supporting an acorn drop mounted with pearls often of different
P. 175 colours, designed by Verdura in 1953.
The great majority of these earrings, both long and short, were provided with a clip or, less frequently, with a screw fitting. Pierced ears were definitely out of fashion in the fifties, probably not because they were thought to be wrong in any way, as in the early part of the century, but because of the unsightly effect of a pierced earlobe when earrings were not worn. Indeed they came to be considered socially improper for the well-to-do lady and confined to the lower classes. Women who had already had their ears pierced concealed the holes with clip on earrings.
Four designs in pencil and gouache by Boucheron, March—September 195 5. The first has a rosette
surmount suspended with a cascade of baguette and brilliant-cut
diamonds, the second is designed as a stylized leaf supporting a cascade of baguette diamonds; the third and fourth are also cascades set with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds, the last supporting a larger brilliant-cut diamond drop.
Yellow gold was the favourite material for daywear earrings which were usually short, in the shape of rosettes, fans, hoops of Creole inspiration, leaves of stylized or naturalist form, spirals, turbans, florets, helixes and clusters, at times decorated with drops and tassels. The ribbons and bows of the i 94os continued in lighter and often informally sketched forms, often combined with leaves and sprays of flowers. Typical of these earrings of the 195os was the varied and imaginative use of the metal, worked into corded wires, pleats, passementeries, woven or fretted patterns and tubular or plated chains sparingly set with small diamonds or coloured stones such as turquoises, sapphires, rubies and emeralds, combined in interesting chromatic contrasts, as seen in the examples designed by Mellerio and Van Cleef & Arpels.
Among the most typical earclips of the time is that designed as a ‘boule’ of gold wire, set with different combinations of gemstones such as rubies and turquoises (the favourite semiprecious stone of the fifties), or rubies and sapphires with diamonds.

THE TRIUMPH OF THE GIRANDOLE
The other most characteristic form of earring of the i 8th century was the girandole, which was fashionable throughout the whole of Europe. In the early
j 8th century it tended to have a horizontal shape, the three drops more or less of the same size and at the same level, and the central motif clearly defined and simple in design. Later it became more vertical in emphasis with a longer and larger central drop and a more elaborate central motif.
Above and opposite right: Late i 8th-century girandole earrings from Spain, set with emeralds and diamonds, a characteristic feature of Spanish jewellery. The elaborate central motif combines leaves and spray of flowers.
Centre top: French, circa I 76os, set with foiled rubies and diamonds, the drops and the central motif articulated. The combination of rubies and diamonds and the elaborate bow motif place it in the second half of the century.
Middle: English, second half of the T 8th century, set with foiled garnets. Note the rather stiff design and the clearly defined ribbon motif. The colour of the garnets is enhanced by bright pink foiling.
Bottom: Portuguese, circa 1750, set with foiled topazes. The choice of the gemstones — topazes from Brazil, then a colony of Portugal — and the linear and flat design are typical of Portuguese jewellery.
THE ELEGANT PENDELOQUE
A collection of late i 8th-century silver and diamond pendeloque earrings. These examples show some of the many variations of the pendeloque design, from the cluster, ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop (right and opposite above) to the articulated and elaborate swing centre (centre and opposite below). Note the use of silver as setting metal to complement the whiteness of diamonds. As is normal at this time, all gemstones are mounted in closed settings.
IBERIAN STYLE
Right: A gold and hessonite garnet earring, Catalan, probably early i 9th century. The striking design is a development of the traditional pendeloque design with a cluster surmount, an elaborate floral spray centre and an elongated pear-shaped drop. Many examples are extremely long and heavy, requiring special mounts to support their weight.
Opposite right: A collection of i 8th- and i 9th-century gold earrings, Portuguese and Spanish. These earrings exemplify the persistence, in the Iberian peninsula, of the pendeloque motif based on
surmount, ribbon bow and elongated drop. The great variety of design includes the traditional pendeloque conceived as a cluster surmount set with emeralds or rose diamonds supporting a bow and a pear-shaped drop; the ‘Brincos a Rainha’ with its wide, almost circular, drop with swing centre, entirely pierced in high carat gold; the elongated spindle-shaped earrings chased in gold with scroll motifs known as ‘Fuso’, and the bow pendants (centre of page).
Detail of a portrait of Mary, Countess of Macclesfield, by Francis Coates, exhibited at the Society of Artists in 1763 and much admired by Horace Walpole. The Countess is wearing fashionable diamond girandole earrings.
REFINEMENTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Opposite far left: A Portuguese silver and white topaz earring of girandole design, first half of the i 8th century, and (below) front and back view of a diamond girandole earring mounted in silver. The back view shows three typical features of the girandole: the closed setting of the stones; the articulated and detachable drops that allow the earring to be worn in a reduced form; and the additional hoop, through which a ribbon was threaded and secured to the hair.
This page:
Illustrations from 18th-century literature on earrings. Top: An extract from the ‘Discours Preliminaire’ of the Recueil des Dessins by A. Duflos, 1744, where the author expresses his concern about the excessive weight and elaborate design of girandole earrings. Above, left to right: French engraved designs of two girandole earrings and one pendeloque earring by F. LeFebvre (active circa 1635-57); a page of French engraved designs for six girandoles by Pouget, 1762; six engraved designs for pendeloques and girandoles by J. Quien, 1710, published posthumously in London in 1762; and two designs for a two-stone or double-cluster earring, by Duflos, 1744, a fashionable form that cannot be classified as either girandole or pendeloque.
Centre left: A page of French designs by Maria,
175 1-70, engraved by Babel, illustrating fashionable pendeloques and girandoles.
Below left: Four engraved designs for pendeloque and girandole earrings, by an anonymous Italian, circa 1770.
THE PENDELOQUE: Centre right: An unusual and colourful pair of earrings, late T 8th century, set with
THEME AND VARIATIONS cornelian plaques within diamond borders.
Right: A pair of diamond pendent earrings, Russian, mid-i 8th century. The interest in large cushion-shaped brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in closed silver settings is a typical i 8th-century feature.
Opposite: Four pairs of pendeloque earrings mounted in silver or gold and silver with colourless gemstones such as white topazes and rock crystal.
Opposite far right: A pair of diamond pendeloque earrings, English, late i 8th century. Note the large rose diamonds in silver closed settings and the rather severe design typical of many English creations of the time. And (bottom far right) a pair of topaz pendeloque earrings and a matching devant de corsage, Portuguese, mid-i 8th century, interesting for its combination of light yellow and foiled orange stones.
Below: A collection of English diamond jewellery, late i 8th century, comprising typical pendeloque earrings and a flowerhead dress ornament.
OUT OF THE MAINSTREAM
Below: A mid i 9th-century portrait by Joaquin Argasot y Juan of a Spanish lady wearing a pair of large gold and gem-set earrings of girandole inspiration, proving how long earrings of this type continued to be popular in the Iberian Peninsula. Their size explains why additional fittings were required.
Right: Silver and rose diamond pendeloque earrings, probably Flemish; and gold Iberian earrings set with topazes, of modified girandole design, similar to those in the portrait above.
Opposite, top left to bottom right: Gold and gem-set Spanish earrings, a variation of the Catalan type but with a much more slender outline; Catalan earrings; gold Iberian earrings set with emeralds; and garnet Catalan earrings. All on this page late i 8th/early i 9th century.
PEARLS, GEMS AND GLASS
Below: A pair of seed pearl and ruby girandole earrings, Southern Italian, mid-18th century. The use of minute seed pearls threaded on a filigree structure is a typical feature of many Southern Italian and Adriatic jewels of low intrinsic value. Even so the design presents the most typical features of the girandole: cluster surmount, bow and detachable drops.
Opposite: A pair of gilt-metal and glass girandole earrings, probably Italian mid- i 8th century, using copper coloured aventurine glass with gold spangles cut and faceted as if it were a precious stone. Glass paste of various colours was frequently cut and set in i 8th= centuryday jewellery, and even aristocratic ladies who owned precious jewels did not disdain to wear it. The smaller pictures show two pairs of Iberian earrings set respectively with rose diamonds and emeralds, late i 8th century. One is modelled on the traditional girandole, the other on the pendeloque form, which in this region retained their popularity well into the 19th century.
A pair of spectacular Southern Italian gold and seed pearl pendent earrings, late i 8th century. Although this particular type seems to be confined to Southern Italy and the Adriatic regions, its structure conforms to the contemporary pendeloque design. The use of seed pearls had been a typical feature of jewels of this area since the I 7th century, providing an extremely successful and decorative alternative to jewels set with precious gemstones.

The Renaissance
During the 15th century in northern Europe the fashion for very elaborate and complex head coverings continued: the voluminous double horned headdress was extremely popular as well as the sugarloaf headdress hennine. In early Renaissance Italy this fashion subsided and the natural beauty of the hair was appreciated once more. This did not mean that very elaborate coiffures were not devised to enhance that beauty. Indeed a popular type of hair arrangement consisted of the hair drawn up into a chignon at the back with a wide band, a ribbon or a strand of pearls known as frenello encircling the head and usually decorated at the centre with a jewel in the form of a flowerhead cluster. With such an abundance of jewels on the head and with the ears concealed beneath the head-band, there was still no point in wearing earrings.
This can clearly be seen in the portrait of Battista Sforza (circa 1465) by Piero Bella P 36 Francesca, in which the Duchess displays a great number of jewels on her head, one fastened to the band at the top and three smaller clusters securing the very elaborate coil of hair placed over the ears. Also popular were rich be-jewelled hairnets placed at the back of the head with the hair combed over the ears and the stones set amongst the gold threads. An inventory of the jewels of Ippolita Sforza given to her on the occasion of her marriage to Alfonso of Aragon in 1465 mentions a net set with 89 rubies and 464 pearls. There was, therefore, no place for earrings. Even when no head jewels were worn the hair was left hanging down in curls over the ears. Throughout the 15th century in Italy, earrings are never mentioned in inventories.
After centuries of neglect, earrings begin to make a timid appearance in Italy around the 1530s, mainly prompted by a change in fashion in hairstyles in favour of parting the hair at the centre and drawing it away from the face which was framed by a padded roll. The design of the new earrings was fairly simple: usually a plain gold hoop with a single pearl drop. This type of earring is depicted frequently in contemporary portraiture but hardly any examples survive. This is because pearls are one of the few organic materials employed in jewellery, and, unlike gemstones, they only last about 300 years.
Another design for which there is pictorial evidence can be seen in a portrait, by Moroni of the mid-to-late I 500s in the National Gallery, London. It shows a pearl drop suspended from a gold spherical element and connected to the gold hoop in the ear by a satin ribbon bow matching the colour of the dress. This is one of the earliest records of this kind of earring, but the combination of satin or velvet ribbon bows and jewelled elements becomes a recurring feature in early and mid-17th century earrings. All earrings were worn with pierced ears: a hoop was threaded through the ear to support the pendent element. The screw and clip fitting is a comparatively recent innovation apparently unknown during the Renaissance. The single mention of the clip earrings which occurs in Cellini’s autobiography merely proves that they were not in common use: Cellini describes dressing up a friend to impersonate a woman at a party given by Michelangelo: ‘In his ears I placed two little rings, set with two large and fair pearls: the rings were broken; they only clipped his ears as though they had been pierced.’
In other parts of Europe, and especially the north, earrings remained out of fashion, the reason again being that elaborate headdresses such as the horseshoe bonnet went on the back of the head and down over the ears.
Towards the end of the 16th century the use of pendent earrings was still limited
36 not so much now by headgear but by the new fashion for very high and stiff ruff collars. The extreme examples of the high ruff occur in Spain, England and France, and in these countries women continued to be unable to wear earrings for about one hundred years after their reintroduction in Italy. They are seldom seen in portraits and are not mentioned in contemporary inventories such as those of the jewels of the French crown from Francois I to Henri III; grand parures of jewels are repeatedly referred to but these include not earrings but items known as `bordures d’oreilletes’, a jewelled ornament that encircles the head from one ear to the other. The only mention of earrings comes in the Chronique du Bourgeois de Paris, in a descriptor of the jewels worn by Eleonore of Austria at her arrival in France for her marriage with Francois I in 1529: ‘hanging from her ears were two large stones as big as nuts’. The earrings were part of the jewellery which she had brought from Spain, and reflect a southern European fashion. In fact her fondness for large, Spanish style earrings is displayed in a portrait where she wears large elliptical gold ones set with three pearls supporting a fringe of a further three pearls.
Shortly before i 60o the high ruff collar gave way to the standing collar, freeing the area around the neck, and long pendent earrings finally began to make their appearance in northern Europe. They are clearly visible in the portrait of Queen Anne of Denmark painted by De Critz at the beginning of the 17th century — large baroque pearls linked by gold-set lozenge-shaped diamonds to gold suspension loops which are completely concealed by red ribbon bows. Two features are noteworthy: the use of the ribbon bows, which had already appeared half a century before in Italy and continued to be favoured in the first half of the 17th century; and the use of large faceted diamonds. It was around this time that improved techniques of gem-cutting prompted a shift in emphasis from the gold and enamel setting typical of Renaissance jewellery to the faceted gemstone.
The 17th Century
As earrings began to gain independence at the beginning of the 17th century a variety of new designs made their appearance, exemplified by those of Arnold Lulls, a Netherlands-born jeweller (active in England circa i585—circa 1621) greatly favoured by James I of England and his consort Anne of Denmark. Prominent among them were aigrettes (a plume-shaped ornament) and earrings set with faceted gemstones. His book of coloured drawings includes three pages of designs for earrings; one page shows two different pairs of earrings. The first has three green pear-shaped stones, the largest at the centre, suspended from a gold crescent enamelled in white and set with a step-cut ruby-, the green enamel suspension loop is in the form of a serpent with four square-cut diamonds set on its head. The second pair is similar but has only one drop, the central element being set with faceted diamonds and the hoop with rubies. Another page shows a pair of earrings, each formed from two pear-shaped pearls with a larger green gemstone suspended from an openwork surmount set with eleven table-cut diamonds. It is worth pointing out that at this time all diamonds portrayed in designs and paintings were painted black, the reason being that diamonds were set in closed settings backed by a black foil or varnish and therefore would appear, in reality, nearly black.
By the early 1600s designs were already fairly elaborate compared to the plain pearl drops which had been common up to then: noteworthy is the serpent-shaped hoop and the use of faceted gemstones reflecting the new interest in cut stones and especially diamonds in consequence of the improved techniques of cutting. Also new is the use of the three drops which will remain a favourite form of earring for two centuries. It most probably derives from the three pearl drops, a larger one in the middle flanked by two smaller, always found suspended from Renaissance pendants. It is interesting that in early 17th-century earrings all elements remain very separate: the hoop, the central element and the drop, and it is only at the end of the century that all parts of earrings begin to be conceived of as a whole. Besides conventional earrings, the rather bizarre fashion for earstrings developed in Britain around 1620. These were suspended not from the ear but from a cord at the sides of the face or a loose corkscrew of hair.
The popularity of earrings at the turn of the 17th century is clear from an inventory of the personal items of Catherine de M6dicis, Queen of France, compiled in 161o, which lists nine pairs of earrings all set with faceted diamonds and gemstones.
One of the best collections of this period is the Cheapside Hoard, now in the Museum of London and the British Museum, part of a jeweller’s stock, probably hidden in London about 16¢o because of the English Civil War. It includes an elaborate pendent earring in the form of three white enamel links supporting ten amethyst briolettes; the suspension loop is missing. Again evident is the interest in cut stone and in a complex design.
During the second quarter of the 17th century there was a change in favour of greater simplicity in dress and ornament, but this seems not to have disturbed the newly established popularity of earrings. Very large pearl drops were one of the favourite types. The difficulty of finding two beautiful pearls matched in size, shape and colour made these earrings extremely valuable and sought after; they were known as ‘union d’excellence’ earrings, the large pear-shaped pearls emerging from flowing curls. At times it is one large pearl, at others one may find two or three pearls hanging
P. 37 from one ear, as can be seen in the English portrait of Ann Carr, Countess of Bedford, painted by Anthony Van Dyck (1599-16¢¢). The fact that so few of these examples have survived is partly because they have decayed and partly because pearls can easily be mounted in a new setting and, unlike a faceted gemstone, are not easy to identify. exceptional pair earrings still exists Only one exceptional pair of pearl earrings still exists today, though not in their original 17th-century setting. They are two extremely large natural pear-shaped pearls known as the Marie Mancini pearls; they were given by Louis XIV to his mistress Marie Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin.
The importance attached to pearl earrings is also substantiated by contemporary literature: Francis de Sales, in his Introduction d la vie devote of 16o8 which was reprinted (mainly in Antwerp) thirteen times in the 17th century alone, writes in a chapter entitled ‘Advice to the Married’ that:
Women of both ancient and present times customarily hang pearls from their ears because of the pleasure they derive (as Pliny observes) from feeling them swing when they touch each other. But because I know that God’s great friend, Isaac, sent earrings as the first token of his love to the pure Rebecca, so do I believe that this jewel signifies spirituality; that the first part that a man must have from his wife and which the wife must faithfully preserve is the ear, so that no speech or sound may enter in other than the sweet sound of chaste words which are oriental pearls of the Gospel.
The expression ‘pearls of the Gospel’ derives from the parable of the merchant searching for rare pearls in Matthew 13 and is used by Sales as a metaphor for Christ’s teachings.
Around the middle of the l7th century earrings had become an essential item of adornment and their shapes were becoming increasingly complex and interesting. It is known that Louis XIV gave an important pair of emerald and diamond earrings to his mistress Madame de Soubise, who used them to signal to the king that her husband had left Paris and that they were free to meet. Typical of the new complexity of design is a pair of polychrome enamel, turquoise and ruby earrings designed as an openwork garland of floral motifs carrying a fringe of pearls, the centre decorated with a tulip, and suspended on a flowerhead cluster surmount. As well as the overall intricacy, it is interesting to notice how the contemporary interest in flowers, especially tulips, is reflected in these earrings. At the end of the i 6th century a garden with hothouses in Paris had plants which served as models for designers of embroidery; later the establishment was bought by Henri IV and the Jardin du Rol, as it was then called, remained a centre for the study of rare and beautiful flowers. But it was the increased European contacts with the Levant that brought exotic flowers to the forefront, and the tulip, first seen in the West in 1559, conquered Europe; in 1634. it generated a real tulip `rage’ known as tulipomania. This explains why tulip motifs are to occur so prominently on contemporary jewels. On one pair of pendent earrings the front is typically set with faceted gemstones, rubies and emeralds supporting a fringe of pearls; but the back is decorated with three tulip flowerheads in painted black and red enamel on a light blue enamel ground.
Around 166o the girandole, which became a very successful form of earring, emerged. It consisted of two main elements worked into a coherent design: a stylized ribbon bow surmount supporting three pear-shaped drops. The bow motif undoubtedly derives from the ribbon bow used in earlier earrings made of satin or velvet in a colour to match the dress; the three drops derive from early 17th-century examples, such as those of Arnold Lulls, going back ultimately to the three pearl drops suspended from Renaissance brooches. The girandole is an extremely becoming shape of earring, as it fills out the space around the ear to complement the face. Its popularity is attested by numerous engravings of the i 66os, such as those by Gilles Legare and Francois Lefebvre. The engraved designs frequently show front and back views of the girandole; the front was set either entirely with faceted gemstones or with three pear-shaped pearls; the back was decorated with enamelwork, a feature that distinguished the early girandoles from later examples. Frequently the designs for the girandole earrings are accompanied by those of brooches of similar design known as sevignes which would have been worn together as a set. Drawings which record the earrings owned by Anne of Austria, the wife of Louis XIII, show girandoles of great elegance set with diamonds of exceptional dimensions; while the inventory of the jewels of Marie Therese, the wife of Louis XIV, dated 1691, lists various girandoles: two pairs set with diamonds, one with very rare stones, the other with pearls.

MODERNISM TABLES
AS WITH MOST FORMS of furniture
during the interwar period, tables were subjected to a radical process of reduction. All details deemed superfluous were stripped away to leave what designers considered to be a pure, practical form.
Marcel Breuer, the Hungarian-born student-turned-teacher at the Bauhaus, was the designer who most successfully achieved the desired, pared-down look. Utilizing tubular steel, a material that he is said to have borrowed from the bicycle-making industry, he produced tables that expressed little beyond their own function.
Eileen Gray’s tubular-steel and glass side tables, now known as the E1027 tables in reference to the house for which she designed them, may not be as rudimentary as Breuer’s tables, but they display more invention. The tops of the tables can be adjusted to sit at differing heights, and the table’s stem
is placed at the side to allow the table top to come over air item of furniture (which, in Gray’s case, was her own bed). Such versatility was to become a key feature in table design of the Modern era.
Since many designers in the interwar years were reacting to the excesses of the Art Nouveau style, most table tops were either a simple, unadorned circle or square. It wasn’t until after World War 11, with the advent of a more organic style, that this strict design principle was relaxed and irregular shapes came into use.
Glass, plywood, and tubular steel were always considered the most cutting-edge materials from which to make tables (due to their close association with industry), although some designers did use solid wood. If this was used it was considered important to avoid all efforts to carve or decorate it, thereby keeping its surface as clean to the eye as possible.
The tables “nest” so as to save space in small apartments.
The black-painted tops hide the wood grain and give the tables
an industrial look.
Chrome plating g) ves the tubular steel an alluring gleam.
NESTING TABLES
This series of four nesting tables fits neatly, one above the next, in a stack. They all have the same depth, but increase in width and height as they grow in size. Each table has a simple, rectilinear, chrome-plated tubular-steel
frame and a black-painted wooden top. The top sits flush with the table frame. Designed by Marcel Breuer at Bauhaus Dessau in 1925-26, it is thought that they were initially designed as stools. This example was re-issued by Toots in 2004. Largest table: H:60cm (231-,in);
W.66cin (26in); 0:38cm (151n). TEC 2

GLASS DINING TABLE
Made of tubular steel, the frame of this table consists of a rectilinear base. At the top, at each end of the table, is a semi-circular support for the glass table top that interlocks the base. There are rubber pads on the
supports, where they come into contact with the table top, to cushion the glass and prevent slippage. The glass top has been ground at the corners to produce smooth curves. Attributed to Emile Guillot and produced by Thonet, Paris. 1930. H:79cm (311m): W:120.5cm (471in); D:725cm (281in). WKA 4
BLACK-ENAMELLED TABLE
The chrome-plated tubular-steel frame of this dining table offers a support for the black-enamelled rectangular table top, before dropping to the floor in each corner to form the legs. Each leg is made from two parallel
lengths of steel. As the legs reach the floor, they join in the centre to form one single length of tubular steel below the table top. Designed by Wolfgang Hoffmann for Howell. W.147.5cm (581n). SDR 1
EXTENSION DINING TABLE
This extension dining table was made in America. The simple, straightforward design consists of a plain, rectangular wooden top with two pullout leaves. The leaves, which are concealed
underneath the table top, increase the table’s
width by 45cm (18m) on each side when extended. The top rests on a trestle base that ends in tubular-steel stretchers and bracket feet. Designed by Gilbert Rohde. Closed: W.152.5cm (60n7). SDR 2
SUNSHADE TABLE
This two-tiered end table is one of a pair. Each black laminate table top has a chrome trim. The smaller, top table sits flush with the tubular-steel frame, and the larger, bottom table is supported by the table base and legs. Designed by Gilbert Rohde for Troy. W.45.5cm (17Yin). SDR I
PALADAO DINING TABLE
This flip-top, wooden dining table has a simple rectangular top with rounded corners. It has two additional leaves for extending the table size and a fifth leg for extra support. The legs taper sharply as they reach the floor. Designed by Gilbert Rohde for Herman Miller. H:91.5cm (3617). SDR 1
TABLES 447
MODEL 91 TABLE
The rectangular top of this table is made from unlimed oak and has a black-linoleum surface. The corners have been slightly rounded. The table top rests on four rigid, chrome-plated tubular-steel legs. Designed by Marcel Breuer for Embru. c.1933. W.120cln (48io). DOR 4
SIDE TABLES
These side tables are made from chrome-plated tubular steel, where the table’s stand is placed to one side can be adjusted to raise or lower the height of the circular glass table lop to still a range of purposes. Designed by Eileen Gray. c. /9`/. 1) !z/( m (20in). DOR I
CAFE TABLE
The square top of this table has a black-linoleum surface with a riveted, plate-steel surround. It rests on four chrome-plated tubular-steel legs, which bend to meet each other in the centre above an X-shaped, tubular-steel base. The linoleum top is new. Produced by Thonet Mundus. (-.1930. H:75cm (291m). DOR 3
GAMES TABLE
The square, orange-laminate table top rests on a chrome-plated brass base. The base hinges in the centre, making the table collapsible. At each corner is a swivel plate for holding a glass. Designed by Boris Lacroix. c.1930. H:70cm (271in). DOR 3
BEECH SIDE TABLE
Designed and manufactured in Sweden, this small side, or occasional table has a circular, white laminate top above three bent-beech legs. The legs taper slightly as they reach the floor. Designed by Bruno Mathsson. 1936. D:44.5cm (17Yin). SDR 3
ROSEWOOD TROLLEY
The circular, rosewood top of this trolley table has hinged sides and rests on a chromium tripod base. The front wheels are also made from rosewood. The caster at the rear of the table is used to stabilize the trolley. H:56.5cm (221in); D:80ca) (311in). L&T
BAUHAUS SOFA TABLE
The table’s frame consists of a rectilinear, nickel-plated tubular-steel base, with a rectangle of tubular steel suspended below the circular, plate-glass table top. Designed by Marcel Breuer in 1929 and produced by Thonet. This example is a Tecta re-issue from 2004. H:60cn7 (231,in): D:80cro (311in).

automata - clocks, barometers and
musical boxes
THE DICTIONARY DEFINITIONof automata is’things which are self-moving or mechanical contrivances which imitate the motions of living beings’. In antique collecting terms, this means old clocks, watches, barometers, musical boxes, singing birds, and anything clockwork from an early Egyptian water clock to the first His Master’s Voice phonograph.
The antique market in clocks is still surprisingly reasonable compared with other fields, but unless you have a strong do-it-yourself bent and are one of those people who can put the piece back again, it is advisable to be a bit chary of some of the bargains offered by general dealers with the vague remark that ‘it only needs cleaning’. Unobtainable spare parts are costly to make, and if you want the clock to go it is better to pay more for a working clock or watch from a specialist dealer. Collecting fine clocks is an expensive hobby, especially if your taste is in French porcelain pieces, which I have seen in the most unusual shapes, such as an artist’s palette, a violin or an old mill complete with moving water wheel driven by real water.
It is quite the fashion now for women to wear a Victorian or Edwardian half-hunter watch on a long gold chain. This has given a boost to the trade in such watches which until recently have only commanded a second-hand price equal only to their melting down value. These beautiful pieces, often set with coloured enamels, can be bought for between ;C5 and Cio and make impressive presents.
There is also a boom in barometers. Items which fetched around £15 a few years ago are now changing hands for three times the price and, unfortunately for us, going to foreign dealers at a most depressing rate. An inlaid Sheraton stick barometer will certainly command a price from C40 upwards but the enchanting Admiral Fitzroy model, produced in Victorian times can cost as little as £5 and give just as much pleasure. Really early barometers, eighteenth century or older, are right out of reach of any but the serious collec-
tor and I have seen a reproduction Quare fetch more than c80.
ian clockwork novelties are ajoy to collect. and even though
nana is fast on the way in, pieces can be bought for a reason-
price. Old stereoscopes through which one views sepia col-cured three dimensional slides – rabbits which jump up and down at the turn of a knob and the multitudinous fairground novelties –are no longer to be found on junk stalls, but now command a real value.
Scientific instruments and animated pieces have a long history and can be traced to Islamic origins in the tenth century. Automata as we know it today really began to be developed only in the eighteenth century when moving figures and animated snuff boxes started to play sweet music or burst into chirruping song. The delicate singing bird box was first made in Switzerland when the intricate mechanism allowed a tiny bird to spring from its jewelled prison and give forth a melodious whistling sound. Such items of course, are extremely expensive now, nevertheless more modern examples made between 186o and 1930 can still be bought, but at prices above C50.
The musical box dates from Regency times and a collection is still within reach of the moderate purse. Most popular is the type which consists of a brass cylinder with projecting pins which produces sound when turned into contact with a resonant comb. Such boxes often play eight or ten tunes, the titles of which appear in illuminated lettering inside the lid. One can still purchase larger pieces too, which play on the insertion of a penny in the slot.
books to read
Clocks and watches
The collectors dictionary of clocks, H Lloyd, Country Life, ,CIO ros
The plain man’s guide to antique clocks, W Bentley, Joseph, x6s
Old clocks,,? Scherer, Hallwag, 8s 6d
18 Old clocks, E Wenham, Spring Books, 12s 6d
Clocks, S Fleet, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Ci ros
Old clocks and watches and their makers, F_7 Britten, Spon, £77s
The story of watches, T P Camerer Cuss, MacGibbon & Kee, I 5S
Chats on old clocks, H A Lloyd,Watches, C Clutton & G Daniels, Batsford,,C7 7s
The grandfather clock, E L Edwards, Sherratt, ios
Barometers
The standard reference on barometers is Old English barometers by G H and E F Bell. This book is like gold dust and virtually impossible to come by. We have it on the best
authority, however, that the authors are now updating this fine work for republication as soon as possible.
Musical boxes
and instruments
Horse brasses and other small items for the collector (singing birds and musical boxes), G B Hughes, ki ros
London and the
Home Counties
Charles Stewart Ltd Wigmore St, London W  probably have the largest barometer stock in England. They ship all over the world and are expert restorers. Specialists in mechanical musical instruments, who will also repair, are rather hard to find. One such is S F Sunley 81 George St W i, himself featured, in fact, in our drawing at the start of this chapter. Singing birds and musical boxes are also an important feature of this stock. Camerer Cuss & Co were estab-
lished in 1788 during the reign of George III, and have an extensive collection of antique clocks and watches at their New Oxford St address. They also carry stock at 5 New Cavendish St. The fact that they have two addresses is an indication of the important stock they carry. Expert repair work to all kinds of automata is also undertaken. Incidentally, if you have bought an early watch such as a Victorian hunter it is much better to take it for repair to a specialist such as Camerer Cuss or in fact to any recognised dealer in such items. It isn’t the fact that the workmanship is necessarily better than a local watchmaker, but such dealers are more likely to have quantities of spare parts available from watches of the same period as yours which have been broken up, whereas it is unlikely that you will have the same luck through a modern silversmith and watch dealer.
Stockists of one of the largest selections of clocks in the United Kingdom is the firm of Huggins & Horsey Ltd 26 Beauchamp Place SW3. They also have a range of barometers.
The name of Aubrey Brocklehurst 124 Cromwell Rd SW7 is a must for the clock collectors’ address book. Close to the West London Air Terminal, a fine selection of mantle and grandfather clocks is offered.
Two more first-class dealers are Charles Frodsham 173 Brompton Rd SW3 and D Bouldstridge 47 Lower Belgrave St SW 1. Both are specialist is antique clocks and the former has been awarded the Royal warranty.
The Regency House Marlow Bucks are specialists in English and French clocks; and grandfather clocks are the metier of Harris & Woodward Amersham Bucks.
Museums to visit i
Gershom-Parkington memorial collection of clocks and watches,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk Museum of British Transport, London SW4 Science Museum,
London SW7
Museum of Ironfounding, Coalbrookdale, Staffs(locomotives) Public Museum, Rochester, Kent (clocks)
Snowshil]. Museum,
Broadway, Glos (clocks)
The Tramway Museum, Crick, Derbyshire
Usher Art Gallery, Lincoln (watches)
Whipple Museum of the History of Science, Cambridge (scientific instruments)
Willis Museum, Basingstoke, Hants (clocks)
I de Haan & Son Waltham Cross Herts have an important stock of barometers. Mr de Haan normally deals only with the trade, but will make an exception for the serious collector. First, however, please telephone Waltham Cross 22756.
In Portobello Rd we recommend Graham Webb who has a large stock of musical boxes, including the type you put a penny into and watch the huge brass disc move round whilst playing a gay tune. He can be found at 93, and will also undertake repair work.
Malcolm GardnerBradbourne Vale, Sevenoaks, Kent is a leading specialist on antique watches. He also stocks a large collection of horological reference books.
Some other dealers in London and the Home Counties
E & M Parker, Blackheath SE3 (longcase clocks and barometers)
Daniel Desbois, Carey St WC2 (clocks and barometers)
Prides of London, Sloane StSWi (clocks and barometers)
W A Pinn, Dunstable, Beds (clocks)
Kennet Gallery, Newbury, Berks (clocks)
Southern England
Antiques through the post is the stock in trade of Valentine Ackland, Frome Vauchurch, Maiden Newton, near Dorchester, Dorset. Miss Ackland publishes a mailing list of her complete stock on a regular basis, and undertakes to post goods to any part of the world. As musical boxes is one of her specialities, enthusiasts should certainly write for a copy of her catalogue.
The name of George Bell instantly means barometers and he is the Wing Commander and Mrs
Guy Marsland of Littlebury,
Essex, started their barometer
and antique business after he
retired from the Royal Air Force.
An excellent stock with a
friendly welcome particularly
for the new collector
author of a really reliable reference book on the subject. Mr Bell has a shop in Winchester, next to
the Cathedral. Here he sells antique clocks and barometers and will undertake expert repair work.
Peter Carmichael Brighton, offers a  wide selection of barometers all
working order; and Yellow Lantern Antiques at nearby Hove keep
French clocks in stock.
We have often driven through the village of Nately Scures near Bas-
ingstoke, Hants and have always been filled with curiosity about
how it got the name to say nothing of how to pronounce it. Paul Frank
Ltd Oakfield, Nately Scures has a good stock of clocks and barometers at this address and also at The Green, Brasted, Kent. Gem
Antiques Bournemouth Hants is another happy-hunting-ground for
timepieces.
Martin Hutton of Battle, Sussex is
a ‘must’ visit for the collector of nineteenth century English and
French clocks.
Some other southern dealers Fordharn Mote Antiques,
Lewes, Sussex (scientific instruments) At,W Porter & Son, Hartley
Wintney, Hants (clocks)
A Bird, Potbridge near Odiham, Hants (clocks and barometers) an
authoritative writer on this subject. The Manor House, Byfleet,
Surrey (clocks)
Wales and the west country Whilst driving through the west country recently we took refuge from a cloudburst in what we thought was a bric-a-brac shop. Our rain-sodden spirits turned to delight on finding that we had unwittingly discovered a veritable treasure chest of musical boxes and Victorian automata in the back room. We were offered not one, but a choice of fifteen His Master’s Voice phonographs of early date. Yahn and Yoy Rodber call themselves ,specialists in the unusual’, and have a wide selection of fairground novelties – we were particularly taken with The Drunkard’s Dream-and also some very fine examples of English and continental musical boxes, which the Rodbers also collect. Musical instruments, anything from a harp to a harpsichord, are also stocked. This delightful shop is in Bridport, Dorset. If you’re looking for a particular piece, we suggest you telephone first, Bridport 28oi.
A large stone lion, standing at least fifteen feet high, guards the premises of Sidney Vaux, The Antique Galleries Ilchester, Som. Mr Vaux used to be an important
private collector of automata until he turned his attentions to veteran cars. He always has some good pieces in stock even though he has sold his own collection.
Reginald Andrade somehow finds room for clocks and small items ot automata amongst his vast stock of ceramics and silver plate. At
Plympton, Devon Mr Andrade I p
had at least fifty clocks at my last visit. He also showed me, amongst other unusual items, a brass gadget which pops up a pipeful of tobacco on the insertion of a halfpenny.
Some other dealers in Wales and the west country Edward Nowell, Wells, Som (barometers)
Gilbert Morris, Ffynnongroew, Flint (clocks and barometers)
J Cleverly, Chipping Norton, Glos (longcase clocks)
Curiosity Shop, Portishead, Som (longease clocks)
Roger Warner, Burford, Oxon (scientific instruments)
Midlands and the north Malcolm Anderson of Plum Park Antiques, Paulerspury nr Towcester Northants, is a long-established
40 Mr Porter of Hartley Wintney, Hampshire with just a few of his antique clocks. His family have been clockmakers for 300 years, he is keen to hear from anyone who owns a Porter-made clock dealer who always has barometers in stock. One model I saw was a coach house barometer which had five dials, two of which were detachable. The thermometer dial would be placed on the mantle of an inn bedroom in Georgian times and the hygrometer dial in the bed itself. If either reading were unsatisfactory to the guest the management were obliged to put some more fuel on the fire, or the chambermaid would be sent up to put a copper warming-pan through the bed.
Herbert Sutcliffe Ing Hey Farm, Briercliffe, near Burnley, Lanes, can offer a comprehensive stock of most kinds of automata, and will ship directly to all parts of the world. Just down the road, so to speak, is Brierfield, and the premises of Y H Blakey & Sons who are specialists in clocks and musical boxes.
On the main A4i from Birmingham to Liverpool is Whitchurch (Herefordshire) and F W Hancock who specialise in grandfather clocks. No early closing day there. Patrick Kirk Knaresborough, Yorks, I think might be fairly described as a tuneful dealer, for his speciality is singing birds and musical boxes. Normally closed all day Thursday.
Barron of Stirling offers fine barometers and will also undertake restoration.
Some other dealers in the midlands and north
Mercy jeboult, Pershore, Worcs
(clocks)
T & S Hyde, 59 Scotgate, Stamford, Lines (clocks & watches)
East Anglia
We think the most energetic person we have ever met is Wing Com-
mander Guy Marsland, a prominent dealer in barometers, weapons, naval and military items. He positively staggers other dealers by his ability not only to attend the early morning markets regularly but by the speed at which he covers the country on buying trips. The early bird catches the worm must be his motto, and this philosophy finds its rewards in an excellent stock of barometers which hang round the walls, and in rows on hangers like so many pairs of trousers. His interest doesn’t stop at barometers and his shop, The Old Carpenters Arms, Littlebury, near Saffron Walden, Essex is filled with unusual types of marine automata, and military antiques of which he has a fine personal collection. Wing Commander and Mrs Marsland live on the premises and will be happy to see serious buyers out of hours, by appointment (Saffron Walden 2346).
For a business with a delightful name you can’t beat ‘Riverside Chimes’ Stratford St Mary, Essex, where you will find a good stock of longcase and other antique clocks.

Desks, Bureaux, Bookcases and Cabinets
Table•desks—desks on stands—the fall-front scrutoire—development of the bureau—secret drawers—knee-hole and partners’ desks –escritoires and military chests—boudoir desks and the “bonheur du jour”-19th-century davenports—Samuel Pepys and the first bookcases—the bureau bookcase and origins of the china cabinet—wall shelves and small standing bookcases.
Even in the 16th century life must have been starting to become a little complicated for the average individual. For the professional man and even for the farmer there were records to be kept and letters written and it was probably due to these facts that by the closing years of Elizabeth’s reign small table-desks began to appear in many households. The steward and the merchant would have to employ a counter and chests as well but for the average man the table-desk was sufficient.
These small antique boxes, almost invariably constructed in oak, were very personal belongings and during the Stuart and Restoration periods it was the custom for the owner to have his name and some commemorative date carved upon the front. Although these table-desks vary in size from the rarer 3 feet in width to the more common 20 inches, they nearly all have the same basic construction. A box shape with a gently sloping lid, hinged with wrought-iron butterfly hinges, contains a small compartment of three drawers. A hasp lock was a normal addition.
These little desks are sometimes mistakenly referred to as bible boxes, as mentioned in Chapter 3. I think it was not unlikely that they contained the Bible in some homes, but there would have been little room left for documents accounts and valuables. I have a table-desk which belonged to a George Lowe who had his name and the date 1666, the year of the Great Fire of London, carved on the front. In it I keep a large bible which has been in my wife’s family since the 17th century. The bible has the date 1668 imprinted with the dedication on the cover and it is an interesting coincidence that bible and desk should be so close together in time.
For anyone requiring an antique desk, it is possible to buy a table-desk for under £10 and placed on a small tavern type table with a drawer in the front they make an excellent substitute for the larger and far more expensive bureau. As a matter of fact, it was rather in this way that the bureau developed. During the latter years of the 17th century two types of desk were in evidence. There was the desk on a stand, which was a development of the table-desk, and a much larger and important piece of furniture called the secretary or scrutoire.
The desk on a stand marked an elementary but noteworthy stage in desk development. Hitherto it had been difficult to gain access to the contents of a desk when the desk lid was already covered with letters and documents. Accordingly, the hinges were changed over to the lower edge of the lid which now opened outwards and was in future referred to as the desk-fall. The fall was supported in the open position by pull-out battens called lopers and in some early stands it was the practice to incorporate two small gate-legs which could be swung out to support the fall instead of using lopers. The fitted interior of small drawers and added pigeon-holes was now much more accessible and it became possible to enlarge the number of drawers with the corresponding increase in the size of the desk.
The scrutoire was a much bigger item than the desk on a stand, being frequently over 5 feet in height. It consisted of a flat-fronted rectangular cabinet mounted on either a stand or a chest of drawers. The whole front of the scrutoire folded outwards and was supported by chains or metal stays. It offered a vastly bigger working area than the desk lid and contained many more drawers and compartments for holding documents and ledgers. Although used in the larger establishments with their corresponding need for more administrative storage space, the scrutoire enjoyed only a short existence and by 1700 was more or less obsolete. Strangely enough it returned to favour about 100 years later in a smaller and more compact form. It was produced in France during the post-Revolution Empire period and re-introduced into this country as the secr&aire a abattant or fall-front desk.
What is rather interesting now is that the furniture designers of the Queen Anne period took the better features of the desk on a stand and the scrutoire and incorporated them in a new form of desk which became known as a bureau. The early bureaux were made in two separate parts, the upper desk section being mounted on a base consisting of a chest of drawers. The sections were provided with carrying handles at the sides so that when being moved each part could be carried separately.
The fall was no longer supported by stays or gate-legs but by lopers. These were almost square in section in the earlier bureaux but by the middle of the 18th century it was found that lopers of greater depth were less likely to sag. Later desks have two small drawers instead of lopers which are pulled out to support the fall when in use. Another characteristic of early 18th-century bureaux was the well or space below the interior pigeon-hole compartment. The well was covered by a sliding panel and was only accessible when the fall was in the open position.
Being rather difficult to get at when the open fall was covered with documents its use was abandoned and it had disappeared from the design of most bureaux by 1750.
The charm of many early desks is enhanced by the Georgian love of secret drawers. It is always the fond dream of the antique furniture collector that one day he or she will buy a bureau and, during that first exciting examination when the new piece has been delivered to the house, a hitherto undiscovered secret drawer will be found. Alas! I have never had the luck although a friend once bought a small wooden casket which proved to have a secret drawer and when this was opened after much patient searching for the secret locking device it was found to contain a gold brooch which had lain hidden for nearly 200 years. The remains of a quill pen, jammed in the back of the well, has been the only personal relic of a previous owner which I have ever found in an old desk.
On the whole, secret drawers were seldom as ingeniously secretive as one could have wished. They follow a certain set pattern of variations; the document slides behind the half pillars on the front of the interior compartment; a false bottom to one of the small drawers; a shallow drawer concealed behind part of the shaped border above the pigeon-holes; the drawer behind a drawer which pulls out on a long handle like a church collecting box. I think the best one I have ever come across was the secret drawer which had a false bottom, a sort of double-bluff. I only hope that the designer never felt the vexation of having it burgled.
Large knee-hole desks with flat tops were made about the middle of the 18th century. Some, being very large and double sided, were known as partners’ desks. They were so designed that two people could work as they sat facing one another. A smaller version of the knee-hole desk appeared during the early Georgian period and is very much sought after today. One in walnut and in good condition might cost anything up to £200. There is some doubt, however, as to whether these smaller kneehole desks were actually made to serve as desks or were really designed as small dressing tables. Further reference will be made to this point in the following chapter.
Another type of desk which was made during the later Georgian period was the secretaire. This has all the appearance of being just a chest of drawers but it is recognisable from the outside when it is recalled that the drawers in an ordinary chest become progressively deeper as they near the floor. The deepest drawer of an escritoire is located at the top and is in fact the fall of a desk. When the top section of the chest is pulled out, pressure on catches at either side of the front will allow the false drawer front to fold outwards when it is normally supported by brass stays. The secretaire has the usual fitted interior of small drawers and pigeon-holes and was a favourite form of writing desk until well into the 19th century. The two stage military chest referred to in Chapter 3 sometimes has an escritoire drawer fitted into the upper part.
A number of small desks, intended specifically for the use of ladies, were designed by Sheraton and his contemporaries. They were lightly made and were referred to as boudoir desks or writing tables. Among them was a revival of the smaller desk on a stand which was called a cylinder top desk. Instead of the usual desk-fall it had a curved top which was made to slide backwards to reveal the fitted interior.
Another version was adapted from a French design and was known as a bonheur du jour. This is a title for which there is no suitable English equivalent; literally it means “the happiness of the day”. As letter writing was one of the chief relaxations of ladies of the more leisured classes in the later 18th century perhaps “bonheur du jour” means just what the name implies.
A little desk known as a davenport was very popular among the Victorians until about 1860. It was supposed to have been first made by Gillows of Lancaster to the design of a Captain Davenport. Early examples were made in mahogany and were rectangular in shape, the desk-top being constructed to slide forward over the knees of the user when required. After 1830 the davenport was usually made in walnut and the desk top was designed to overhang permanently, being supported by carved legs or brackets. Until recently, davenports could be purchased for a few pounds and may still be acquired very reasonably.
Bookshelves have been in use ever since books have been collected into libraries but it was not until the Restoration that the bookcase with glazed doors appeared in this country. Credit for the design is given to the great diarist, Samuel Pepys who was an ardent book-lover. In the Pepys library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, are the original bookcases which Pepys had made for his own use and which he bequeathed with his books to his old university.
At approximately the same time as features of the desk
on a stand and the scrutoire were combined to produce
the bureau, a bookcase was superimposed on some exam-
ples to form the bureau bookcase. It was first made about
1700 and is still being produced in a variety of forms.
Some early bureau bookcases had doors fitted with
mirrors instead of plain glass. These were fashionable
during the Queen Anne period and are very rare today.
Some small walnut bureaux with a single mirrored door
were made to fit between the long sash windows of the
early 18th-century drawing rooms and their value at pre-
sent might be £700 or £800 each. An interesting feature
of the bureaux with mirrors in the doors were the little candlestick slides fitted into the rail just under the doors and above the desk proper. When lighted candles were placed upon them at night the illumination was doubled by the reflected light from the mirrors.
Plain glass doors through which the gilded leather binding of the books could be seen superseded the mirrored doors by 1720. The glazed variety were known as astragal doors from the beading or astragals which formed the framework for the glass. There is a story that all genuine old bookcases have thirteen glazed sections in each door. This would appear to be yet another legend without foundation because I have not infrequently seen genuine old doors with fifteen astragal panels.
Another of the many pieces of furniture which originated during the Restoration was the china cabinet. Collecting the attractive new porcelain from the far east with its translucent body and fine decoration became very popular in London and the larger sea-port towns. To preserve their fragile specimens, lacquered cabinets from China were imported and mounted on heavily carved wooden stands of British manufacture. These were sometimes coated with silver or gilding and were quite a decorative feature of Restoration and William and Mary period furnishing. The fact that the contents of the lacquered cabinets were not visible probably brought about their replacement by the glazed china cabinets of the Queen Anne period. These were usually mounted on a lower stand furnished with the cabriole legs of the times.
For some reason, perhaps because an 18th-century bookcase may be too overpowering in the 20th-century house, it has become the practice in recent years to separate bureaux from their bookcases. The result is that the latter may often be obtained for under £10 and mounted on a small stand or side table they make very attractive china cabinets.
Sets of wall shelves were in use during the 16th and 17th centuries but apart from small racks for holding pewter spoons, few have survived. Small fitments of wall shelves were reintroduced about the middle of the Georgian period. Normally, they consisted of two or three shelves with two small drawers beneath and those of the later Chippendale school had delicately fretted sides. Being very lightly made they could be used only for small books but in all probability they were designed to display ornaments. The later types were of thinly cut mahogany with pleasantly shaped sides and a little boxwood stringing inlaid along the edges of the drawers.
The late Georgian period saw the production of standing bookshelves or bookcases without doors, many made to the designs of Hepplewhite and Sheraton. They were comparatively small, being only about 3 feet in height and width and, as well as being made in mahogany, quite a number were constructed in pine. These were then painted either white or black with gilding and though not particularly common can sometimes be bought quite cheaply at house sales.

Cupboards, Wardrobes and Small Hanging
Cupboards
Evolution of the cupboard—development from a chest form—the Gothic hutch or livery cupboard—origin of the “cup board” or buffet—the court cupboard and press—lasting popularity in Wales of the deuddarn and tridarn—armoires, cloak cupboards and the linen press—later appearance of the wardrobe—hanging dole and medicine cupboards—various fronts of the corner cupboard—painted interiors—Victorian buffets antique porcelain tea pot made in france .
The cupboard may have evolved from a chest form because a chest, when placed on its end, would serve as a narrow cupboard or locker sabino marks . Again, the chest on legs with an overhanging top and hinged doors beneath, like the counter mentioned in Chapter 3, could also have been an ancestor of the cupboard gateleg table imperial furniture .
The counter was sometimes referred to as a hutch in old documents but nowadays the latter name is usually only given to a wired cage for tame rabbits value of antique rectangular drop leaf pedestal dining . In the Gothic period the hutch was a small planked cupboard used chiefly as a food larder antique harlequin figure . The door and front were perforated with frets of an architectural character to allow air to circulate and so keep the food fresh cheap art neuvou side tables . Pieces of loosely woven horse-hair were nailed to the inside of the frets to keep flies and insects away from the contents art deco chairs mahogany . While the horse-hair has long since perished the remains of the small nails which held it in position are sometimes still to be seen antique oak drawleaf trestle table .
Many books on antique furniture show an illustration of Prince Arthur’s Cupboard, which is in the Victoria and Albert Museum antique glass “la granja” . It dates from around 1500 and is one of the finest pieces of English Gothic furniture in existence the most expensive silver tray . It is unique and the chances of discovering a similar piece are negligible king george 1v furniture . However, it is possible that the smaller planked hutch, although very rare, may still be found by the discerning seeker after antique oak peter behrens side chair . I know of one in the possession of a Cotswold antique dealer but he says that f1,000 would not buy it satsuma pottery thousand flower . On the other hand, there are a considerable number of hutches at Haddon Hall in Derbyshire l shaped sideboard . In that part of the house open to public view I have counted nearly a score, so it is not beyond a reasonable possibility that there are hutches lying in old barns and attics elsewhere which might turn up one day and offer themselves to a knowing buyer inlaid moorish bone .
Apparently, it was a custom in the Middle Ages to keep a small supply of food in private rooms for use at any time antique epergnes . This would be stored in hutches which in time came to be referred to as livery cupboards lusterware made in czecho-slovakia . This term was in use until a few years ago and I remember an inn near my home where there was a painted notice over the entrance to the inn-yard, now given over to car parking, which bore the legend “livery and bait” french style porcelain gilded weight driven clock . This indicated that change of horses and refreshments for the journey were always readily available italian spider leg table .
Aumbry is another old name for a hutch or livery cupboard 16th century spanish trunk . There are some antiquaries, however, who maintain that the aumbry was not a standing cupboard but was essentially a recess in a wall which was enclosed by a door in a frame antique drop leaf side table furniture makers mark england . It may be that in different times the word was used to describe several types of cupboard 18th century rococo copper candlesticks .
The “cup board” proper was originally a side table or buffet which was a fitment with two or three shelves made to stand against the wall in the proximity of the dining table aimone mfg co new york . On this were kept the wooden trenchers or platters for use at meal times antique austrian furniture . In the 16th century and later it was used to display the silver or pewter table-ware, according to the opulence of the household georgian kneehole cabinet .
Early buffets vary in the amount of decoration, some being merely a set of shelves with some simple carving on the rails supporting the shelves classic furniture drawing . Others were larger and more elaborate with bulbous turnings on the front uprights and sometimes the centre and top rails concealed long shallow drawers which fitted under the shelves chippendale gateleg table . These were used for storing spoons and knives only as forks had not been adopted for table use at this time cheap art neuvou side tables .
Towards the end of the Elizabethan period it became the practice to construct buffets with the upper staging enclosed with panels and doors old antique sofa tables . This piece of furniture was known as a court cupboard from the French word court, meaning short or low origins art deco . Eventually, the lower stage of the court cupboard was enclosed as well during the early years of the 17th century and the cupboard form became really established from then onward chippendale style coffee table tilt value . In recent years the term court cupboard has been quite often misapplied to these completely enclosed cupboards late 1920s patek winged lugs . The late R american made ceramic french figurine . W christian mayer furniture . Symonds, who was probably one of the most authoritative furniture historians of the 20th century, has been able to confirm by much diligent research into old house inventories and wills that the correct name is actually a press renaisance design dining table made .
The press was invariably made in oak and a considerable
number were produced during the 17th century gate leg table 17thc . They were
built as a rule with three tiers of cupboard doors showing
on the front, two doors being on each of the top and
middle tiers and one on the bottom antique bread rack . The rails were decora-
ted with low-relief strapwork carving and ornamental
mouldings were sometimes applied to the panels and
door frames dining habit tendency . Carved initials of the owner and his wife,
together with a date to commemorate some family hap-
pening, were favourite additions to the design napoleon leather and steel campaign chair . Many of
these cupboards had large pendant turnings on either
side of the overhanging top george 3 style . These were the vestiges of the original bulbous turnings used on the front uprights of the buffet and court cupboard collectors glasgow school of art . The small doors are, for the most part, found with wrought-iron butterfly hinges but early presses had upper doors which turned on wooden dowel pins dutch plate family dining . Small turned wooden knobs were used as handles on the door frames cantagalli marks .
The early press was essentially a cupboard for storing food and table-ware and should not be confused with the linen press of the following century, details of which will be given later in the chapter antique tea set - rh macy . For the most part it was of fairly large size being 6 to 8 feet in length and would have been found in the dining or living rooms of the more prosperous Stuart and Commonwealth farmers dressing a tea table . Consequently, it can seldom be accommodated in a present-day house myott,son&co. .
However, there are smaller and rather attractive versions of the press which were made in Wales and enjoyed a degree of popularity during the 18th century, although the press in England had been superseded by the dresser mother of pearl coffe table fake antique egypt . These Welsh pieces were of two very similar types and were known as the deuddarn and tridarn, the former being constructed with two tiers or stages only while the latter had three pictures of 5 drawer antique library desks and tables . The top tier of the tridarn is seldom a fixture and can usually be lifted off, should this be necessary louis sue . These small press-type cupboards are seldom ornate but being comparatively small, often only 4 to 412 feet in length, the breaking up of the front surface with doors and panelling permits the mellowness of the old oak to be appreciated to the full new york city 18th century pembroke tables . In the deuddarn, drawers are sometimes included between the lower and upper tiers vases ceramic antique carved figures on front .
Tall cupboards for hanging clothes had been in use on the continent since the early 16th century chicken coops shelves . There they were referred to as armoires and it is thought that they were probably used for storing armour and weapons as well as clothes 17th century dutch silver . The few early armoires to be found in Britain are nearly always of French or Flemish origin, and cupboards designed for holding garments were rarely to be found in these islands until the beginning of the 18th century kneehole dressing table styles .
Hitherto, the accepted method of storing gowns and suits of clothes was to use a chest or a large chest of drawers “perspectiva cabinet” . Now a large cupboard with double doors was adopted for the purpose antiques furniture,josef hoffmann . It was mounted on a chest of drawers but a closer examination of the two top drawers will show them to be merely false fronts which do not open antique centre pieces for dining table . Behind them the space is used to afford greater hanging room for the clothes in the cupboard above art deco candle sticks . The lower drawers were made to function in the normal way oak draw refectory table . Before the invention of clothes hangers the contents of the cloak cupboard or clothes press were hung on a series of wooden pegs placed along the back and sides of the cupboard interior 18th century knife boxes .
Sometimes, the cupboard space above the drawers was fitted with wide trays for the storage of linen large rectangle dropleaf table . Although the exterior would be identical to that of a cloak cupboard, the article in this case would be called a linen press and the top drawers would be real ones as a deeper hanging space for clothes would not be necessary candelabrum .
Taller wardrobes without dummy drawers were pro-
duced by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and other cabinet-
makers type of wood used for roman furniture . These were very elegant in appearance with
finely veneered doors and sometimes with bow-fronts 18th century mahogany drop leaf table cabriole legs .
In mid-Victorian times some huge wardrobes were con-
structed in three or four separate sections kashgai carpet . These were
screwed together when assembled in position and included
bays for hanging clothes, long dressing mirrors and sections
with trays for keeping linen wear drop leaf table with spiral legs . Today, these well-made
mahogany and satinwood edifices are indeed white
elephants for they are much too large ever to go into a
modern house or flat royal staffordshire by clarice cliff nancy . Usually they are bought very
cheaply and then taken apart so that the fine wood in them can be used in the manufacture of reproduction pieces, sometimes advertised as “made from genuine old wood”  . I suppose that if one cannot acquire the authentic article then these are the next best thing five legs two leaf oak antique dining table .
Since the late 16th century, small hanging cupboards have always appeared among the more usual furnishings george speight porcelain . Towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth I and in early Stuart times wall cupboards with, fretted fronts or with the door frames filled with rows of baluster shaped spindles were in general use barley sugar twist pillars timber . Nowadays they are referred to as dole, or food, cupboards and were once hung inside churches to contain the bread doles provided by charity bequests antique 19th century nesting tables birds-eye maple . They were probably used as food larders in the kitchens of private houses as well art deco writing sets . Although this cupboard form is rarely found as an antique in England these days it is not an uncommon discovery in Wales social origins of art deco .
In the 17th and 18th centuries when doctors and apothecaries were few and far between, every housewife kept a store of medicinal herbs and remedies for administering to her family in times of sickness care of antique tortoiseshell . These were preserved in small cupboards which hung on the wall or stood on a chest of drawers and contained a number of pigeon-holes and small drawers for separating the various herbs antique paper mache trays . I always regret having failed to acquire one of these little spice or herb cupboards which a dealer friend of mine had in the shop meissen figures dating . Other dealers had passed it by, saying that it was only an old top from a grandfather clock which had been converted into a little cupboard vintage wooden card table . Actually, it was a genuine Queen Anne medicine cupboard with a finely panelled door and a neat compartment of drawers inside maccasar modernism france . However, the question had then arisen, as it does for all collectors sooner or later, of just where it was going to fit in with all the other things, and the opportunity had to be missed the revival of the games in the 19th century .
Corner cupboards, like tripod tables, are probably more numerous than any other type of antique furniture and are still to be had very reasonably antique table footed clock . They were in general use throughout the Georgian period and served many purposes antique dutch coffee table 17th century . Nowadays a corner cupboard with the doors left open makes an attractive setting fora small collection of china or Staffordshire chimney ornaments antique sideboard with built-in pendulum clock . Oak corner cupboards are usually flat-fronted with canted corners but occasionally they are found with bow-fronts patek philippe, 1930s, rectangular, hinged back . This is the pattern which was more often adopted for the mahogany cupboard and with an inlaid frieze at the top and a couple of small drawers beneath, this would make a very desirable acquisition to any modest collection of antique furniture antique dressers yorkshire .
Some flat fronted corner cupboards have glazed, astragal doors, that is with little panes of glass set into a framework of thin bars or beads robinson and leadbeater figure . These are usually original but a door with a single sheet of glass in it has probably had the wooden panel removed and glass substituted for the display of china or silver oak draw leaf table 18. th . Do not be in a hurry to strip or paint over if the interior of your cupboard is decorated in a faded olive green colour american antique slant front desk . This is probably the original finish as the Georgians were very fond of green linings to their cupboards and cabinets and a little toilet soap and warm water will most likely restore the paintwork very nearly to its original condition decoupage on veneer .
Finally, some mention should be made of the reappearance of the buffet in mid-Victorian dining rooms late 1800’s dining table european . Much lighter in design than its Tudor counterpart, it usually consisted of three quite deep shelves supported on four slim mahogany, turned corner uprights renaissance dining tables . These buffets, like the 17th-century press, are often too large for the modern house moser, austrian furniture designer . Occasionally they are to be seen, laden with dish covers, cutlery and cruets, in the spacious dining rooms of those old-fashioned but comfortable coaching inns which have survived into the day of the motor car art deco dresser inlaid wood .
Beds, Day-beds and Cradies
Early beds—rest for the rich and not-so-rich—misnomer of the “four-poster”—characteristics of 17th-century bed construction—development of the tester—beds of the mid-Georgian era—foreign influences on late 18th-century bed design—truckle and folding beds—origin of the day-bed—Restoration and early 18th-century types—Regency elegance of the chaise-longue—the Victorian sofa—cots and cradles padded antique library wood arm chair .
Early beds were looked upon as the most important items in any household 18 century porcelain placks louis xvi . They were handed down from father to son and were always mentioned with some degree of pride of possession czechoslovakia porclian . They were often very heavy, monumental constructions and the occupants depended for their comfort on enormously thick, feather mattresses 19th century parian busts . These were laid either on a network of ropes which passed through holes in the framework or on a foundation of wooden slats scroll planter table y chair .
There must have been a general fear of draughts and fresh air at night or the bedrooms were very cold and draughty because it was the practice to enclose the beds with panelling or heavy curtains until the end of the 18th century antique tea caddies, penwork . It is hardly likely that many people nowadays would sleep in a 17th or 18th-century bed for choice, although I have an old collector friend who nightly repairs to his Georgian four-poster neo classic bookcase maple tuscany . I should add that it has been fitted with a box-spring mattress of the latest slumber-inducing design antique half leaf table .
In medieval times the wealthy slept on free standing
frame beds overhung by a tent-like canopy which was suspended from the ceiling 19th century desk cabinet . Servants and attendants slept on the floor or on straw palliasses antique oak dressing table with mirror . For information about beds in the time of Elizabeth 1, we look again at William Harrison’s Description of England narrow entryway chest of drawers . In it he wrote: “Our fathers have lain full often upon straw pallets, on rough mats covered with a sheet and a good round log under their heads for a pillow 18 century wooden novelty pipes . If the goodman of the house had purchased a mattress or flock bed, and thereto a sack of chaff to rest his head upon, he thought himself to be as well lodged as the lord of the town, that peradventure lay seldom in a bed of down or whole feathers charles neo classism boulle . As for servants, if they had any sheet above them, it was well, for seldom had they any under their bodies to keep them from the pricking straws that ran oft through the canvas of the pallet and rased their hardened hides inexpensive french desks furniture .”
The “four-poster” bed of antiquity is a well-known term but few have stopped to think that the four-poster, at any rate until the early Georgian period, was in fact only a two-poster, the back or bed-head which supported the top, or tester, being a panelled framework without posts dressoir antique . In the 17th century these beds were known as tester or posted beds staffordshire porcelain rococo revival period . Medieval beds are so rare as to be almost non-existent but there are a number of beds with testers which can be dated from the late 16th century 18th century boulle cabinet . Some of these were excessively large like the Great Bed of Ware, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum antique sideboard styles and makers . It was made about 1595 and is 10 feet 9 inches wide antique gate legged side table . The great majority of beds, however, were between 5 and 6 feet in width art nouveau dresser .
Posted beds all followed a similar pattern, having a strong rectangular frame to carry the mattress and at the head a panelled screen, often elaborately decorated with carving and inlaid woods antique american tilt top pedestal table . This screen and two turned pillars at the foot of the bed supported a panelled ceiling or tester from which hung the curtains, to be drawn at night are william and mary chest of drawers rare? . The pillars at the bed-end were usually incorporated in the bed framework and acted as feet for the mattress franl;ng characteristics of english medieval gateleg table . On larger beds, however, the framing would have separate feet and the posts supporting the tester would be freestanding on rectangular pedestal bases period art nouveau galle bronze table lamp .
Some smaller beds were made with panelled screens erected at the bottom end as well as at the head so that they formed, in effect, large panelled boxes with curtained sides american spoonback armchair . They must have been very stuffy and altogether unhealthy japanned bracket clocks . Whether it was a reaction against the unhygienic properties of the enclosed bed or just a simplification for economy’s sake, a plainer type of bed appeared about the middle of the 17th century 19th century lacquered japanese cabinet with paintings . It consisted merely of a framework on short legs and a low panelled bed-head deco porcelain spanish dancers female . It is usually referred to as a farm-house bed victorian renaissance revival credenza . For those who have an ambition to equip their homes with antique furniture entirely, this type of bed, with a box-spring mattress fitted, can be quite an interesting acquisition wileman/shelley vases . They are not uncommon and I have seen them from time to time in several sale-rooms drop leaf table oak uk antique .
The tester undoubtedly developed from the tent-like covering of the medieval bed and during the 16th and 17th centuries was a very heavy structure which demanded a strong supporting bed-framework cupboard design for keeping cockery . During the time of William and Mary and Queen Anne it became fashionable in the noble households to install beds which were most luxuriously appointed antique chairs 1600 s all wood carved . In keeping with the tendency to build houses with higher ceilings to the rooms, these beds were also very high with elaborately decorated testers and the entire framework upholstered with quilted silk and velvet george jones majolica ware . Such beds were usually installed to commemorate the stay of some royal visitor antique chamber cabinet .
Beds of the mid-18th century became altogether lighter in construction and appearance and although in some cases the bed-head screen to support the tester was retained, the more ordinary run of beds had lower bed-heads and four posts to support the tester arabic style lambrequins . By this time the tester consisted only of four curtain poles placed across the tops of the posts with a light covering of material stretched Over them antique telescopic dining tables . Thomas Chippendale made a bed for the Duke of Beaufort about 1750 in the Chinese taste draw leaf tables . It has a pagoda-like top with flying dragons a6 the corners and, finished in black japan and gold, has a very attractive appearance carved oak draw-leaf refectory table . Another bed, painted in the Chinese manner, was made for David Garrick about 1770 antique oak drop leaf table american . It also has a light wooden tester with embroidered silk curtains and like the bed of the Duke of Beaufort indicates the tendency for greater delicacy in construction of furniture during the second half of the 18th century myott son & co hanley 1880 .
For some time during the 18th-century Italian and French beds were imported into the British Isles and although the numbers were small they influenced the design of the English type considerably regency mahogany settee hairy paw . The Italians seem to have been the first to do away with the tester and its hangings sheraton gateleg card table . Probably in a warm climate common sense overruled fashion and tradition maggiolini furniture . French patterns of the late 18th century were very elaborate in the decoration of bed-heads and here also the tester seems to have been abandoned entirely antique dutch desk . Only in England, and the climate was probably the chief reason for its retention, did the use of the tester linger on into the 19th century end tables tall spindle leg antique . Wooden canopies, from which side curtains were hung, were still being fitted over the bed-head about 1850 19th century english sideboard .
Lightly constructed beds, rather like the folding kind used for camping today, became fairly common during the Georgian period red delft tiles religious 17th century value . They were small enough to be kept under th;, posted beds when not required and were used by nurses or servants attending sick people or as extra accommodation for an unexpected visitor bone handled fork converted to knive . I have seen small chests of drawers with dummy fronts which swung open like a cupboard door antiquegames writing table . Inside were folding beds which could be pulled out when wanted heals pair oak tables . All these lighter types were generally known as truckle beds and were fitted with small wheels or castors so that they could easily be moved around dutch marquetry sutherland table .
I have already mentioned in a previous chapter how chests were used as seats in early times and it is evident that the larger ones also served as beds or couches porcelain wincanton . Some years ago in a sale-room I saw a panelled oak chest with raised ends antique porclean handled sheffeld flatware . Although I did not realise it at the time I had come across an archebanc couchette, probably of early French design which had been made to serve both as a chest and a couch inlay antique serving trays . I have never seen another since and only hope that one day the opportunity to acquire such a rarity might present itself again 17 century dining tables .
From these bed-chests probably developed the more lightly constructed single bed or day-bed which appeared towards the end of the 16th century etruscan pottery oriental . Shakespeare has referred to them in his plays and, by the Restoration, day-beds had reached a pleasing standard of design meissen porcelain antic . They were made in walnut with six or eight legs and had an adjustable end frame which, together with the main framework of the bed, was equipped with woven splitcanework to give some resilience to the overlay cushions types of table legs 19 century . Day-beds with double ends are found occasionally but they are very rare antique perpetual calendar .
The day-bed continued in use throughout the 18th century conforming to the fashionable characteristics of the time, but it is rather difficult to separate its development into that form known as the chaise-longue from that of the settee, couch or sofa corbusier furniture vintage . Although all these types were used for lying or for sitting upon, I think it should be remembered that the day-bed was designed primarily for resting during the day-time while the settee or sofa was made to enable a number of people to sit together on the same seat mahogany kommode . Perhaps the best way to remember the difference is that the day-bed or chaise-longue was never made with a back like a couch or a settee kilian brothers carved fruit and bird inlaid table . In its later form, as used in the 19th and 20th centuries, it has become known as the divan having neither end supports nor back antique table drop leaf raise .
The chaise-longue of the late Georgian and Regency periods became the symbol of elegant repose, typified perhaps by Jacques Louis David’s portrait of Madame Wcamier fauteuil art deco brandt . The beautiful piece of furniture with its gracefully curving ends was said to have been designed by the artist himself value of gateleg tables . It was in all probability among the finest of the adaptations by the late 18th and early 19th-century designers from the sources of classical Greece and Rome sideboard turns into dining table . A shorter form of seat which is often identical in appearance to the chaise-longue is the window seat bassano maiolica . Like the former, it has no back but is too short for reclining upon and as its name implies was just a small seat made to fit into a low window bay without obscuring the view causes of the reign of terror in france .
The type of Victorian sofa which has just the one scrolled end and a short back-piece running only half its length is really in the tradition of the day-bed rather than that of the couch or settee antique bread making cabinet . Those made in walnut about 1850 with small cabriole legs are attractive pieces of furniture and become increasingly rare as time goes on sheffield shovels .
Children’s cots and cradles are really among the few antiques which are not normally put to their original use and would hardly be considered suitable for the modern baby regency waterfall bookcase . Nowadays, babies are put to bed and left to sleep or lie awake as they will but in olden times an essential of all cot and cradle design was that they should be able to be rocked 1930s antique square table . The two swinging cots illustrated have basically the same structure although they are separated by more than 300 years dressoir timber . The Gothic cot is just an oak box suspended from a well-made stand while the late Georgian version, dating from around 1820, is a much finer affair in turned and needed mahogany pollard elm furniture . It has a clockwork mechanism incorporated in the suspension of the cot which will actually cause it to rock for nearly an hour lusterware made in czechoslovakia . It might be that the steady ticking of the clockwork also acted as a further soporific josef originals+ballerinas+value .
The more homely cradle of the farmhouse and cottage had a small hood at one end century furniture chinoiserie dining table chair credenza . It was mounted on a pair of rockers so that the mother could rock the baby to sleep with her foot while her hands were busy with some sewing or the preparation of food metal plates and trays from iran .

THE CHEST
Although many new forms of furniture had been evolved from the chest, the latter was extraordinarily persistent in retaining its popularity more or less in its original form. It continued to be made in large numbers throughout the seventeenth century, and in provincial districts remained as a sort of standard household possession long after oak furniture had gone out of fashion in the towns. The probable explanation was that, for its size, it had maximum accommodation and was as simple a piece of work that a carpenter could undertake. It was not, in fact, until the chest of drawers, with its greater convenience, was invented that it began to decline in popularity.
Fig. 54 is a typical chest of the early years of the seventeenth century. It is well enough made in its way, though the detail is extremely crude when closely examined. It was probably the work of a country carpenter who could make a reasonable job of cutting, say, a mortise and tenon joint, but was rather out of his depth when it came to any carving.
One has to bear things like this in mind when arriving at an opinion on a piece of old furniture. Age may have given it a fine colour and centuries of polishing produced an inimitable surface, but, this apart, the mere fact that it was made in the seventeenth century does not make it beautiful. There were poor workmen then as now.
Chests with Drawers.—Returning to the chest, we now come to the last phase and its final disappearance—or rather conversion. We have seen how certain pieces such as the side table were evolved from it without affecting the chest itself, this still continuing in its old form, probably with varying detail, but virtually the same. Now, however, it was to lose its identity as a chest, although its use remained unaltered. It came about through the invention of the drawer. The latter was becoming increasingly popular in the seventeenth century, and it probably occurred to someone that the inconvenience of having to turn out the entire contents of a chest in order to reach something at the bottom could be avoided to a large extent if the drawer system were applied to it.
These things usually have their beginning in a small way, and the thin end of the wedge can be seen in the left hand chest in Fig. 53, which is virtually just an ordinary chest with two drawers fitted at the bottom. Its advantages must have become immediately apparent, for very shortly the whole of the space was given over to drawers as in the right hand chest in Fig. 53. Once this had happened, the old form of chest which had survived for centuries with practically no change of form became extinct, and it has never again been revived.
Whilst we still have the chest in Fig. 53 in mind, it is worth while noting the method of decoration employed on the drawer fronts. It consists of applied mouldings mitred round to form various patterns. It is the fact that they areapplied that is specially to be noted, because we saw in the Elizabethan period that they were invariably worked in the solid. This method of applying ornament is typical of the later Jacobean period, and it extends to such details as half-named was an innovation of the early years of the seventeenth century, but it hardly comes under the heading of domestic furniture, because it was the type of thing that would not be made for anyone except a person of the highest
quality. There is an example in the famous King’s bedroom at Knole. It was made specially for James I during a visit he paid to the mansion, and it is entirely on the lines of the upholstered chairs mentioned earlier in this chapter. Every portion of the woodwork is covered with rich material, and above the tester are four great plumes, one at each corner.
Such a bedstead was well enough in a palace, but it would not be suitable for use in humbler houses. It is worth noting at this stage, however, because the type became popular again towards the end of the century. The nobleman or rich merchant would use the four poster bedstead, an Elizabethan example of which was given on P. 40. This continued with few alterations except in detail for the greater part of the seventeenth century.
Well-to-do farmers and those of similar standing used the simpler panelled head and foot bedstead. This was practically identical with the modern wood bedstead, except of course that the side rails were of wood and that the mattress was supported by ropes which were threaded through holes bored through the rails. Rather more elaborate specimens had both head and foot made extra high, so to support a simple tester, as that in Fig. 55. This virtually is simply three pieces of panelling, with side rails added to support the mattress.
For the other furnishings of the bedroom there was the chest, which later in the period was fitted with one or more drawers, and eventually the complete chest of drawers. In addition, various forms of cupboards or presses made their appearance for the more convenient storing of clothes and linen. Fig. 56 shows an early piece, and was the origin to which the modern wardrobe can be traced.
JACOBEAN ORNAMENT
This does not differ a great deal from that of the Elizabethan period. It is in the main a rather free rendering of the Renaissance. Certain new features made their appearance—the lozenge panel for instance, which was of diamond shape and was usually ornamented with simple gouge cuts. (See the top panels of the bedstead in Fig. 55.) Such carved details as the guilloche, lunette, and arcaded panels (see P. 42) remained popular through Jacobean times.
Later pieces of the period, however, tended to become more artificial, in that decoration was applied rather than worked in the solid. Take, for instance, the group of panels in Fig. 51. In every case the mouldings are applied, and,

THE JACOBEAN BEDROOM
There were three kinds of bedsteads made in Jacobean times : the four poster, the panelled head and foot type, and that covered over with fabric and heavily draped. The last-although there undoubtedly is a certain decorative value in the arrangement, they tend to become somewhat meaningless since they bear no relationship to the construction. In Elizabethan work mouldings were worked at the edges of rails or were channelled along the centre, and have a definite purpose in taking off the harshness of a square edge or enriching a plain surface. In the Jacobean work they often appear to be laid on in any convenient way that suggested itself to the imagination of the craftsman.
The same thing applies to the other decorative details which were invariably applied.

FIG. 55. SIMPLE CANOPIED BEDSTEAD WITH PANELLED ENDS.
Mid. 17th century.
This is the sort of bedstead used in smaller manor houses or farm houses.
Note the holes in the rails and head and foot to take the roping which supported
the mattress.
turnings, diamonds, studs, and so on. A group of Jacobean panels with applied mouldings is given in Fig. 51.

FIG. 54. JACOBEAN CHEST WITH CARVED PANELS.
First half 17th century.
The development from the chest of the previous century can be seen by comparing
this with the examples on p. 17. In this particular example the whole work-
manship is particularly crude.

FIG. 56 PANELLED WARDROBE WITH CHANNELLED FRAMING.
17th century.
A typical arrangement of the panelling is shown in the doors. It is
similar to that in the court cupboards on pp. 38 and 61. Note the use of
the long horizontal panel in all three examples.

Low Countries Early 19th Century Antique Furniture

THE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM did not formally exist until 1831. Indeed, in October 1797, after the Treaty of Campo Formic, the region was annexed to France. As a result, the furniture produced there in the early 19th century scarcely differs from the French Empire style. Although the province was struggling economically, those with sufficient financial means ordered their furniture directly from Paris. After 1831, as elsewhere, a series of historical revival styles dominated Belgian furniture design.
The situation in the Netherlands was slightly different, partly because of antagonism towards the French occupation. After the Battle of Jena in 1806, Napoleon gave his brother Louis the throne of the Netherlands. As in Italy, the Empire style was introduced directly by the Emperor’s family.
INNOVATION
In 1808, the new King ordered that the 17th-century town hall of Amsterdam be refurbished as a Royal residence and had a suite of principal rooms built in the fashionable Empire style. Most of the furniture was supplied to the new French overlords by loyal Dutch craftsmen, including the talented Carel Breytspraak, the son of a German cabinet-maker, who had matriculated to the Amsterdam guild in 1795. His furniture is heavily influenced by the severe Classicism of Percier and Fontaine (see pp.200-01), but demonstrates idiosyncratic touches, such as applied mouldings around drawers or the use of typically
Dutch tapering feet. He also frequently used canted pilasters on case furniture to reduce the sense of bulk. Much of the seating supplied for the new Royal palace was upholstered by Joseph Cuel, including a scrolling day bed commissioned for the bedroom of Queen Hortense.
TRADITION
The Empire style remained popular even after Waterloo, so when King William I re-decorated the State apartments of the palace in The Hague, they were conceived in a Napoleonic style.
One of the most important suppliers to the palace was Nordanus, a local cabinet-maker. In 1818, he provided numerous mahogany pieces, some of which were veneered with floral marquetry. Local motifs, such as the fluted friezes and corner chamfering characteristic of 18th-century Neoclassical Dutch pieces, occur on much Dutch Empire furniture.
Classical features still persisted in the Low Countries into the second quarter of the 19th century and, as elsewhere in Europe, furniture was frequently made from light woods, particularly maple or burr-walnut, and was often influenced by both British furniture and the German Biedermeier style. Furniture workshops also became increasingly mechanized as the century progressed.
The Salon de Boiserie, Amsterdam Almost all of the painted panelling in this room is decorated with lavishly carved gilding. The room was designed by architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine.
DUTCH DINING CHAIR
This elm dining chair has a panelled top rail of joined construction with tapering sides. The felt upholstered seat has brass studding and is raised on a plain seat rail above turned and tapering legs. Early 19th century.
BELGIAN FAUTEUILS
The top rails of these Neoclassical, laminated, black-painted armchairs are decorated in gilt with central twin putti flanking a lyre in husk-decorated borders. The downcurved arms end in gilt ball finials and are supported by gilt cornucopias headed by leaf tips. The inverted, U-shaped legs of each chair have gilt-metal leaf-tip sabots. Each chair is stamped “Chapuis”. Early 19th century.

DUTCH CARD TABLE
The folding top of this walnut table has rounded corners and sits above a rectangular panelled frieze. The table top stands on square-section, tapering legs with gilt-metal feet. The table is decorated throughout with floral marquetry typical of the Low Countries. Early 19th century.

LINEN PRESS
This mahogany and rosewood cabinet has two doors crowned by a moulded and shaped cornice with a domed pediment and central cartouche. The lower section has a bombe base with three long drawers and claw-andball feet. Early 19th century.

The front of this rectilinear 11,111o)~,,Iuy cabinet contains one dummy drawer flanked by two true drawers with a cupboard enclosed by double doors below. The corner colonettes are carved with tasselled drapery and have Egyptian -style brass mummy’s-heads and foot terminals. The case stands on short, tapering legs with toupie feet. c.1805. H:99(-,m (391n); W.,120cln (471,in); D:59crn (23in). TNH
The square, tapering legs terminate in toupie feet,
The veneers are plain and well-figured.
The doors are decorated with a brass, geometric pattern.

DUTCH CABINET
The top section of this mahogany linen press has a pediment crest above a pair of cupboard doors, which open to reveal three shelves and three aligned drawers. The lower section of the press has two short over two long drawers and is raised on rectangular feet. The linen press is relief-carved with Neoclassical motifs. Early 19th century.

EARLY 19TH CENTURY ITALIAN FURNITURE.

LIKE MANY OTHER European states,
the majority of the Italian states and kingdoms followed the lead of Paris. The greatest French-style furniture and interiors were created during the period of Napoleonic patronage, in the first decade of the 19th century. The French Emperor installed his brothers as rulers in Italy: Joseph became King of Naples and Lucian became Prince of Canino. Napoleon’s sisters also created significant interiors in the area: Elisa Baciocchi in Lucca and Florence, Pauline Borghese in Rome, and Caroline Murat in Naples. But it was not just aristocratic patrons who commissioned the cabinet-makers: one of the period’s characteristics was the emergence of middle-class buyers. This widening of the market coincided with the beginnings of mechanization and the gradual organization of the workshop – a trend that continued throughout the 19th century.
ITALIAN EMPIRE
In some ways, the French Empire style did not suit Italian furniture-makers. Its emphasis on large expanses of high-quality timber was a significant problem in an area where this was difficult to find. Also, its rectilinear forms and strict, sober lines seemed antithetical to a furniture tradition that favoured sculptural qualities. However,
symmetry and balance, with few curves and little ornament apart from Neoclassical gilt-bronze mounts, eventually dominated Italian furniture production. To overcome the problem of poor-quality timber, many pieces were painted – white, pale blue, and eau-de-nil were popular colours. Classical architectural forms were favoured, along with motifs from Imperial Rome, such as trophies of instruments or weapons, fasces (banded rods), laurel wreaths, and antique lamps.
FRENCH IMPORTS
The Grand Duchess of Tuscany (one of Napoleon’s sisters) actually brought French ebenistes to Florence to establish workshops and impart their skills and techniques to the Italians. Mounts were also imported from France. Consequently, it is almost impossible to differentiate between the French Empire furniture in the Palazzo Pitti in Florence and the Italian variants. The Empire style remained in fashion after 1815, sometimes combined with French Restauration styles, but the use of mahogany declined in favour of walnut or lighter-coloured timber.
During this period, Italy was made up of a patchwork of small states and kingdoms, dominated by Austro-Hungary in the north. Regional diversity was, therefore, far greater than in Britain or France, and much of the furniture produced echoes the traditions for which they are famous: Classical in Rome, Baroque in Florence, and Rococo in Venice. Lombardy produced some of the greatest innovators of the era, particularly Giocondo Albertolli, who trained at the Accademia di Brera and who published his influential Corso
elementare d’ornamenti architettonici in 1805.
The study of Umberto I This shows a room in the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. Under Elisa Baciocchi, Napoleon’s sister and Grand Duchess of Tuscany, several rooms in the palace were redecorated to reflect Paris fashions.
CARVED MIRROR
This carved and gilded mirror frame is decorated with masks of grotesques at the corners. The pediment is richly decorated with baskets -overflowing with flowers. c.1800.
MURANO MIRROR
This mirror has an applied crystal pediment and a frame with C- and S-scrolls at the corners. The oval mirror is surrounded by mirror sections engraved with leaves and divided with moulding. Early 19th century.
GILTWOOD SIDE CHAIR
two Neoclassical giltwood side chairs
part of a set of six Cardinal Fesch chairs; Fesch. a Corsican cardinal, became French ambassador to Rome in 1804. Each chair has a richly carved, domed back depicting a pair of
carved griffins above a stylized serpentine floral carving on a punched ground. The upright back supports are in the form of fluted pilasters with a frieze of running husks. The padded seats have fluted seat rails and are raised on gilded lion’s-paw legs. c.1810.
MAGGIOLINI
THE MOST FAMOUS NEOCTASSICAL FURNITURE-MAKER OF THE
LATE 18TH AND EARLY 19TH СENTURY, MAGGIOLINI’S NAME
IS ASSOCIATED WITH A PARTICULAR STYLE OF MARQUETRY.
Giuseppe Maggiolini (1738-1814) made furniture that was austere, boxy, and unpretentious in form, with no carving and few mounts. However, its characteristic pictorial marquetry lent his work a brilliant opulence. Maggiolini used many different types and colours of timber to create his marquetry pictures, shunning Stains, artificial colouring, and other tricks to achieve decorative effects. In the tradition of Piranesi and, more recently, the ornamental designer and interior decorator, Giocondo Albertolli, he produced marquetry trophies, still lifes, Chinoiserie and caprici. As a result, his name is used to refer to all work of this type, whether produced in his workshop or not.
Maggiolini started his career as a carpenter in a Cistercian monastery, where he established his first workshop in 1771. He later founded a second workshop in Milan, which was inherited by his son, Carlo Francesco, and Cherubino Mezzanzanica. He crafted some of his most brilliant furniture for the Archduke
Ferdinand of Austria, who was the Governor General of Lombardy, and the King of Poland was also one of his clients.
In keeping with the tastes of his age, Maggiolini’s furniture is simple in design and follows late 18th-century French prototypes. Its defining difference is the intricate marquetry, in Italy this had a long tradition stretching back to Renaissance intarsia works.
Louis XVI commode This rectilinear, marble-topped piece, from the studio of Guiseppe Maggiolini in Milan, is made from rosewood and several exotic woods with inlays of Classical figures in medallions and interlacing festoons. The commode has three drawers with bronze mounts and is supported on square, tapering legs. c.1800.
The frieze drawer is inlaid with a row of interlaced festoons.
The top is not made of marble, unlike French commodes.
The two case drawers are inlaid sans traverse with a symmetrical diagonal pattern centred by a medallion containing Classical figures.
The complicated marquetry patterns are typical of Maggiolim’s work.
ARMCHAIR AUX TETES DE LION
This mahogany armchair has a gently curved top rail, an X-frame back, and armrests terminating in carved and gilded lions’ heads. The X-frame base has gilded paw feet. c.1810
Stop-fluted corner
GILTWOOD AND VERDE ANTICO SIDE TABLE
This rectangular table has a verde antico (old green) veneered marble top above a frieze inset with matching marble panels and fluted corners. The square, tapering legs are also inset with marble panels and are surmounted by carved caryatids, whose hands support the table top. c.1800.
The massive table top is veneered with marble.
The frieze is inset
with marble panels
that match the
table top.
The table legs are inset with marble panels
Caryatids support the table top.