Posts Tagged ‘antique gate leg tables’

First created by Cartier in 1952, the design was immediately copied and reinterpreted in many variations by most of the jewellers of the time.
Contemporary daywear fashions were dominated by the classic two-piece suit reintroduced by Chanel at the reopening of her atelier in 1954, and these yellow gold earrings suited them perfectly, as well as the stylish afternoon dresses then in vogue.
Earrings simply mounted with a single pearl, natural or cultured, often of large size without any form of decorative surmount, gained in popularity throughout the decade thanks to their adaptability to both day and evening dresses and to their discreet sheen which always flattered the features of the face without being as overpowering as diamonds. Cultured pearls came back into favour after a decade of neglect; and natural pearls, whose price had dropped dramatically in the 1920S when cultured pearls became widely available, were admired again and rose in value. As cheaper alternatives, large mabe pearls were favoured within gold and diamond borders.
Left and opposite: three pencil designs for gold and gem-set earrings,
by Mellerio, i 95os.
A pair of i 8ct molten gold, diamond and baroque pearl earclips bv Andrew Grima, 1968. The stylized flowerhead surmounts support detachable pendants.
The 1960s
In the 196os the marked distinction between very precious earrings set with diamonds for the evening and less expensive gold earrings for the day disappears. All types could be worn at all times provided that they were large and decorative. Their effect was achieved not necessarily by using materials of high intrinsic value, but by exploiting contrasts of texture and colour. A good example of this style is a pair of opal, emerald, sapphire and diamond pendent earrings mounted in yellow gold in 1966 by Andrew Grima, a particularly successful jeweller and designer who can be regarded as the trendsetter of the sixties style in Britain. His earrings are typical of the time in their abstract design and in their interplay of different textures, the rough gold mounts contrasting with the smooth and polished surface of the opals. Their vivid use of colour is also typical; the bright green emeralds, the intense blue sapphires and the bright multicoloured flashes of opals highlighted with diamonds and gold are particularly striking. It is not surprising that these eyecatching earrings won the 1966 Duke of Edinburgh Prize for Elegant Design, the first and only time that a piece of hand-made jewellery rather than an industrial product gained this prestigious award. The judges’ report stated that British jewellery designers ‘are now starting to win an international reputation for their imaginative work … There is a much less inhibited attitude to new techniques, such as melting under controlled temperatures and new ways of giving different textures to gold. These have given much greater scope to the designer and have released him from the rigid conventions of setting — and much credit for this liberation, and for the gaiety that has resulted, must go to Andrew Grima, the recipient of the 1966 prize.’
Similar qualities are to be found in Italian clips set with emeralds, sapphires and gold. The amoeba-like abstraction of their design once again combines contrasting elements: the large cabochon emerald with its smooth and polished surface in contrast with the textured gold mount, and the striking use of colour: green, blue and yellow. The emeralds and sapphires, although not of gem quality, have been exploited for their attractive colour, once again indicating how contemporary jewellers were often more interested in the decorative quality of the gemstones than in their intrinsic value.
The use of uncut gemstones and natural objects unworked by man was widespread at the time, and jewellers in most countries were eager to exploit such materials. Emphasis was placed on the contrast between faceted and uncut stones, such as agate geodes, aggregates of amethyst or dioptase crystals left in their natural form. In one
P 1771, pair of long pendent earrings, sapphires, diamonds and fragments of crystal dioptase
178 are combined with rough-textured gold-work reminiscent of entwined branches. Interest in unusual textures, striking colour combinations and relatively cheap materials prompted jewellers such as David Webb and Verdura in New York and Darde et Fils in Paris to make use of exotic and colourful sea shells for their earrings. The bold contours of the polymita pieta (Cuban tree snails) with brown, orange, yellow and white stripes applied with gold lozenges by David Webb (1964-65) or with gold saw-teeth by Darde et Fils show how such materials can be successfully used. All the examples reproduced here belonged to the Duchess of Windsor, who like other fashionable women of the mid-sixties did not disdain comparatively inexpensive ear-clips provided that they were unusual and decorative. All sorts of shells of differing shapes were adopted to both short and long earrings, as is illustrated by the extraordinary late sixties example by Grima, where an elongated tusk-shaped shell from the South Pacific is enclosed in a gold wire case and its natural curve exploited to echo the contour of the face.
Nature, transmuted in abstract and stylized forms, was the source of inspiration
for many ear ornaments: for example, the intricate form of sprawling roots is the
basis for gold mounts in the earclips designed by the American jeweller Arthur King,
where the central cultured pearl or smooth coral bead is held in a surround of textured
and entwined gold wire-work. In a similar way small gold batons soldered together,
framing the large sapphires in Grima’s 1968 earclips, are reminiscent of the twigs in
birds’ nests, while in a pair of decorative and exuberant earrings by Meister of Zur-
ich (designed in 19′71 but very much in the style of the i 96os) clusters of mimosa
blossom are juxtaposed with polished gold spheres and brilliant-cut diamonds. Ab-
stract forms and different textures, consistent features of 196os jewels and earrings,
were achieved by means of new techniques such as melting under controlled tempera-
tures. The results can be seen in the gold and coral earclips by Sterl6 where the gold
mount appears as ‘frozen’ molten metal, or in the jagged textured gold edges of Marit
Aschan’s earclips of 1966, reminiscent of butterflies dipped into turquoise enamel
encrusted with diamonds. One of those who has continued since the i 96os to achieve
P. 189 infinite variations of texture in gold is Gerda Flockinger. In a stunning combination
of interchangeable earrings of 1980, the inherent beauty of the molten gold is empha-
sized by minute grains and swirled encrustations where tiny diamonds sparkle at ran-
dom. Most of these innovative examples are one-off productions and reflect the
greater importance attached to creative design rather than intrinsic value; in fact, the
jewels in their settings are worth considerably more than their break-up value, which
indicates both that people are buying more for beauty of design than for investment A pair of gold, enamel and diamond star-shaped earclips with matching brooch, and a pair of gold, ruby and diamond earclips designed as flowerhead clusters, both by Boucheron, Paris, circa 1970.
and that the designer is achieving a personal status very different from the anonymity of his immediate predecessors. Examples produced in larger quantities and not as one-offs were manufactured for a more conventional clientele, and although not as daring as the designs by Grima, Sterl6 or Marit Aschan they display characteristic sixties elements. This is noticeable in the pair of stylized flowerhead earclips by Kutchinsky, where the theme, naturalistic this time and not abstract, is made vivid by bright and smooth green and blue enamel juxtaposed with the rough textured gold border.
Other fashionable earrings, especially for day wear, were inspired by objects, plants and animals that had not been associated with jewellery in previous decades. Some of them are distinctly light-hearted, such as the frog earclips in gold and bright green enamel with cabochon ruby eyes which David Webb presented to the Duchess of Windsor in 1964; or the pineapple earclips set with stripes of calibre-cut onyx and rubies designed in 1968 by Jean Schlumberger. Surrealist themes in jewellery had already been pioneered in the mid-fifties by artists such as Salvador Dall; the ‘Honeycomb Heart’ earclips of 1954 studded with circular-cut rubies and diamonds, and paired gold wing earclips signed ‘Dall’ in black enamel are good examples. But it is only in the sixties that one witnesses in jewellery a proliferation of such witty and amusing motifs. They represented a break with tradition and went hand-in-hand with the vogue for all that was fun, innovative and daring and they suited the fashion that replaced Dior’s sophisticated New Look and opulent but measured elegance with (alternative’ clothes — trousers and miniskirts — and required ‘alternative’ jewels to match. This new social and moral climate of the sixties found expression in such outward signs as the geometric and sculpted dress of Courreges or Paco Rabanne, the miniskirt of Mary Quant, the severe and short bob devised by Vidal Sassoon — and amusing unconventional earrings.
At the same time traditional examples of high intrinsic value continued to be produced. These were designed as diamond-set stylized flowerhead clusters supporting opulent cascades, but their jagged contours, achieved by alternating brilliant-cut and marquise-shaped diamonds held in minute white precious metal claws, differentiate them from the flowing and continuous lines set mainly with baguette diamonds of the previous decade.
The 1970s
After 197o earring design, like fashions in dress and hairstyle, seems to break free from all constraint and to become almost infinitely varied. The only common feature is largeness.
One of the most characteristic types of earring for day wear was a pendant designed as a large circular, oval or drop-shaped hoop held by a smaller surmount of similar design. These were mainly carved in hardstones including rock crystal, lapis lazuli, onyx, coral, tortoiseshell and ivory or rare woods like bois d’armourette, or they could be made of gold, often decorated with bright contrasting enamels such as blue with
P f84, yellow and red. The popularity of this hoop pattern was such that one finds it is
185 repeated both in designs and extant examples from all the major jewellery firms. Van Cleef & Arpels and Mauboussin were famous for their pear-shaped onyx hoops embellished with gold and diamond motifs suspended on variously shaped surmounts, such as the example illustrated on p. 184, where the elongated onyx hoop decorated with pave-set diamond motifs hangs from a leaf-shaped surmount of brilliant-cut diamonds. Often these earrings came with a long chain necklace — the most typical jewel of the seventies — formed of similarly designed links suspending a large pendant which repeated, in an enlarged form, the motif of the earring. Boucheron favoured an upside-down drop-shaped surmount with a similarly designed but larger drop in gold, lapis lazuli, tiger’s eye, or pink coral (e.g., model nos: 37640, 37632, 3763 1 and 37750 of 197o and 1971). The great popularity of the pendent hoop earring was also exploited by Mellerio, who did not limit himself to two hoops but designed examples with three, made of textured or corded gold linked together. Besides the repetition of the pendent hoop motif, another noticeable feature of most jewellers and above all of Boucheron’s production is the use of vivid and striking colour combinations, such as pink-green-gold, brown-pink, brown-green, turquoise-purple, light blue-black-gold and red-black-white. Hoop earrings were all made of gold or carved in hardstone; they were frequently decorated with pave-set diamond motifs but never with faceted coloured gemstones.
Hoop earrings were also widespread in the USA; David Webb in New York became celebrated for his large rock crystal and diamond drop earrings with pear-shaped hoops carved in rock crystal and embellished with diamonds. The design was devised one day when he happened to see a crystal chandelier being dismantled. His heart sank at the sight of such wonderful drops being wasted and he thought immediately of earrings. His design was so successful that these earrings continued to be produced well into the 1980s.
During the 1970s the most important jewellery houses such as Boucheron, Cartier, and Van Cleef & Arpels were differentiating between unique creations set with exceptional gemstones made on commission and more readily available products at more affordable prices intended for a wider but still discriminating clientele. Many of the examples mentioned above were included in the ’boutique’ line of these jewellers and were meant for the fashion-conscious woman who was free to chose her own jewels according to taste and the colours of her clothes. The idea was to own several pairs of earrings of different colours which would be changed to suit various occasions.
The great popularity of the hoop-in-hoop motif meant that it was also adopted for evening wear. When that happened, a more precious version was produced, either
set entirely with diamonds (as the earrings by Gerard 1978-79, where the three P. s, hoops suspended from a cluster surmount are claw-set throughout with brilliant-cut diamonds) or with the hoops enlivened by coloured precious stones such as rubies, emeralds and sapphires alternately set with diamonds (as can be seen in some designs by Boucheron, nos: 37731 and 120971). Other precious examples for the evening P. Y8 repeated a similar outline of the hoop pendants but the hollow centre was filled with encrustations of exotic decorative motifs set with differently coloured gemstones. The inspiration of many of these earrings was Indian-, the red and green colours, as in the Boucheron example of 1978, suggest the combination of colours in Jaipur enamels; and the use of cabochon stones in flowerhead arrangements of gemstones is typical of Indian 18th- and 19th-century traditional jewellery. This source of inspiration is confirmed by some of the names given to designs of this period such as: Arabesque, Sultan, Nepal. It is not surprising that the Middle East and India inspired earring design, for many aspects of artistic, cultural and intellectual life in the 1970s were influenced by the East.
The short earring was often designed as a half-hoop or a hoop simply clamped to the earlobe with a clip fitting. Like pendants, they were made either of yellow gold, variously textured and worked, or set with coloured semiprecious hardstones embellished with diamonds. It is interesting to note that throughout the seventies the metal used for setting all gemstones including diamonds was yellow gold and not platinum or white gold; since the 18th century diamonds had almost invariably been set in white metal to increase the whiteness of the stones, and only in the I 97os did the jewellers switch to yellow gold. This probably has several explanations: firstly the influence of traditional Indian jewels where diamonds were set in gold; secondly a desire to break with tradition; and thirdly an attempt to make diamond, the gemstone par excellence, more wearable at any time of the day and give a more casual look to the most glamorous and evening-orientated gem; the warmth of the metal and its association with daytime jewellery made such adornments more wearable. Obviously there were disadvantages in using gold with diamonds, for example high colour, very white stones appearing of lower quality when reflecting the yellow gold mount. On the other hand diamonds known as Cape stones which possess a yellow tint look better in a yellow gold than in a white gold or platinum setting. The seventies fashion for large earrings, cabochon coloured gemstones and above all the use of gold as the sole metal for setting all gemstones, and especially diamonds, are features which continued to be popular in the following decade.
The 1980s
In the 19 8os earrings became so fashionable that they might be considered the jewel of the decade. Leading jewellers in Europe and the United States agree that by far the best selling jewels of the period were earrings. They were the favourite of the fashion-conscious woman, often being worn as the sole form of jewelled ornament. They were considered an indispensable fashion accessory to match and complement the style of an outfit, whether that of the executive woman in a tailored Armam suit by day or the extravagant and feminine woman in a Lacroix gown by night. This explains why women of the eighties owned numerous pairs of earrings and never felt that they had enough. Furthermore, earrings, unlike rings, have no sentimental implications, and can be bought, given as a gift or changed without a second thought. Demand stimulated supply — from mass-produced types marketed in large numbers to the most exclusive and one-off creations. But they all, short or long, followed a certain
P. 180, pattern: they had to be bold, flashy, large and colourful. Designs in this period are
181 extremely eclectic, but all short earrings are characterized by large, bold yet compact shapes, while pendant earrings may be distinguished by their large sculptural and three-dimensional drops which differ from the elongated linear hoops of the previous decade.
Among day earrings there was another archaeological revival, largely promoted
by Bulgari who since the mid-seventies had been mounting earrings with ancient
p. 186 coins. Greek, Roman and even I 7th- and i 8th-century coins, known as ‘gemme num-
marie’, numismatic gems, were set in sleek mounts of matt or shiny metals of differ-
ing colours. Striking effects were obtained by juxtaposing ancient, worn materials
with smooth and sleek modern mounts and by combining metals of contrasting
colours. An example is the combination of gold and silver in the 1982 gold earclips
set with a silver drachm of Demetrios I Soter, Syria (162-150 BC); platinum, gold
and electrum are placed next to one another in the 1984 clips set with two electrum
hecte struck in the island of Lesbos at Mytilene between 44o and 3 50 BC, held within concentric platinum and gold circles; and bronze or steel in combination with more precious materials became a distinctive feature of Bulgari and was employed in bold and innovative creations. Modernity is opposed to antiquity in the hoop earclips of 1980 designed as a graduated white gold band of flattened tubular linking set at the centre with two fanam yellow gold coins of the Dutch Indies 0 719-40). Although coins might seem rather uninteresting and repetitive to the layman, the variety of these earclips is astonishing: coins appear singly or in pairs, and the mounts display an unlimited variety of decorative patterns: reeded or corded wires, concentric sections, fluted elements and flattened tubular chains sometimes embellished with a few diamonds or cabochon coloured gemstones and small pearls. A compact circular form is common, since it is demanded by the shape of the coin, and a genuine archaeological concern has led to the mounts always being inscribed with the provenance and denomination of the coins.
Archaeologically inspired earrings were not limited to Italy: the Greek jeweller Ilias Lalaounis had been designing such jewels since the late 19 5os but his earrings gained popularity in the eighties, with their large size and decorative bold shapes. His designs have since been copied and reinterpreted by many other jewellers in Greece and throughout Europe.
Lalaounis’ earrings are inspired by the work of ancient Greek and Byzantine goldsmiths. Sometimes they are outstanding for their closeness to original ancient examples, while at others they are pastiches of Classical and Hellenistic themes, such as lions’ or rams’ heads, reminiscent of Greek late Classical earrings. All are in matt 22-carat gold, attempting to match the colour and texture of ancient examples. Reminiscent of Byzantine jewels are domed discs with granulation motifs encrusted with deep green emeralds and red rubies combined with pearls.
The fact that women want to own many pairs of earrings to suit different occasions has prompted the creation of large numbers made of relatively cheap materials which are nevertheless very attractive and eyecatching. Marina B in the 198os had mastered this art by setting her highly innovative and decorative earrings with semiprecious stones of various colours combined with small diamonds, yellow gold, black burnished gold and black metal. In all this variety of materials and shapes (hearts, tassels, drops, hoops) the unifying element is the striking way in which colours are combined with the sculptural, three-dimensional form of both the surmounts and the drops. For example the Cimin model of 1987 inspired by a Chinese lantern is in burnished black gold set with six blue topazes, yellow citrines, and amethysts, two pink tourmalines and diamonds. Among the most successful creations of Marina B is the Pneus earring, first designed in 1980, characterized by a squat circular pendant inspired by the pneumatic tyre of an aeroplane — hence the name. In this type the circular drop, carved in semiprecious gemstones, can be changed for similar drops of differently coloured stones such as pink tourmaline, rock crystal or blue topaz in Pendent earrings with wide and voluminous drops and compact clips in the form of large discs or fat crescents in many variations remained in favour throughout the decade both in Europe and in the United States. Bulgari’s output is still dominated by
P. 183 large earclips such as those set with a pink sapphire flowerhead with emerald leaves at the centre of a cushion-shaped panel decorated with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds; other motifs include open hearts set with sugar-loaf cabochons of precious stones of various cuts such as emeralds, rubies, sapphires and diamonds. A common characteristic of these colourful earrings is the imaginative and varied cuts of the gemstones which are shaped in order to fit the design: e.g. , the tassel or baton-shaped
P. 181 quartzes of the 1984 Najwa earring by Marina B.
The typical fitting of these earrings is a combination of clip and stud. From the late seventies ear-piercing regained popularity, losing its negative connotations, mainly because earrings fixed through the lobe are much more secure. Safety and comfort are priorities when earrings are heavy. Some eighties earrings weigh up to 4o grams, and the weight, especially in large pendent earrings, is alleviated both by the spread of the surmount and by the additional clip fitting which enables it to be distributed over a larger surface. The combined clip-stud fitting also had the great advantage of being easily adaptable to the unpierced ear by sawing off the prong of the stud.
p. 182 As ‘flash’ is the essence of earrings of the eighties, in examples where coloured gemstones were not used, large surfaces of polished or hammered gold with diamonds were favoured, such as the large disc-shaped earclips retailed by Harry Winston, the bold crescents of the Ecumes by Marina B and the double twisted hoops by Repossi, all mounted in yellow gold pave- or collet-set with diamonds. The glamour
P. 180, of gold, its richness of colour and its reflective quality were exploited also by Paloma
189 Picasso and Elsa Peretti. Both designing for Tiffany, they created earrings of very simple but bold shapes cast in gold. The glamorous effect of their stylized leaf, bean, cross, dome and hoop earrings is achieved by curving the polished gold surface and allowing it to reflect light in different ways. These earrings suited the taste of the emancipated woman of the eighties by combining feminine allure with the masculine look, gold and diamonds with cotton T-shirts and jeans.
The past decade has also witnessed an increase in the production of most lavish and expensive earrings set with exceptionally rare stones. In these cases the shapes tend to be fairly traditional, with the emphasis on the size and shape of the gemstone rather than the design.
The name of Harry Winston in New York has been traditionally associated with
this lavish production. Among his most successful works are informal diamond clus-
ter earclips, set with marquise and pear-shaped stones. The design was first created in
the sixties but it has continued to be favoured until the present day, becoming a trade
P. 191 mark of the firm. A pair of the most recent cluster earclips by Harry Winston, made
in 1989, is set with a total of 26 stones weighing 5 1.22 carats, remarkable not only
for the weight but the quality of the stones which are all D (I.e., pure white) flawless.
A pair of pearl and diamond pendent earrings by Cartier, London, 1928. This example is typical of the late 1920S for the slightly flared drop, differing from
slim and elongated drops and the earlier
for the use of white gemstones only. Their exceptional length, 9 cms, is another typical feature of earrings of the time, me, which often grazed the shoulders.
This example may be distinguished from earlier clusters by its richer and more compact contour.
Cluster earclips are also used as surmounts to suspend detachable drops set with large gemstones such as emeralds, sapphires or diamonds. An exceptional example is the Harry Winston cluster tops with D flawless pear-shaped drops weighing 34.80 and 37.12 carats respectively. Large pear-shaped ruby earrings are never found because gem quality rubies are extremely rare and can hardly be matched. Lavish ruby earrings are always set with clusters of smaller stones, such as those set in hoop earrings by David Webb.
The increasing quest for the perfect stone has meant that most high-quality gemstones set in important earrings are now accompanied by certificates from internationally recognized gemmological laboratories. The origin of coloured gemstones is stated, Columbia is prized for emeralds and Kashmir for sapphires; diamond certificates state the colour of the stone, with pure white (D) being the most sought after, and clarity is defined as the absence of internal impurities visible under ten-fold magnification. In recent years there has been growing interest in naturally coloured diamonds, blue, pink and yellow, and once again Harry Winston has been in the forefront. An example of ‘fancy’ coloured diamonds are those set with a yellow emerald-cut diamond in a border of six pear-shaped stones.
As the object of these earrings is to show off the stones, the mounts have a purely functional role with minimal impact of their own. This explains why the stones are held by minute claws which, in the case of high colour diamonds, are always in white metal. The result differs from the style of contemporary decorative earrings, where larger stones are nearly always collet-set in gold.
The rarity and value of these earrings derives both from the quality of the gemstones and the difficulty of matching them in perfect pairs, especially when one considers how many tons of diamond ore have to be sifted to find just i carat of gem quality diamond.
In the i 99os earrings show no sign of falling in popularity. Indeed their variety, splendour and ingenuity of design seem likely to rival any decade of the past. Costume jewellery, the demi-monde of the fashion world, has attained respectability and examples of it are often almost as expensive as the precious items they imitate or parody. The outrageous has become the commonplace, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish high from high-street fashion. An art form that has been flourishing for at least four thousand years is as alive as it ever was, as exciting, as beautiful.

The eighteenth century
The somewhat oppressive style of Louis XIV died with him. After his death life at court was characterised by elegance and a lighter touch. The effect was also felt in art with the salons of Paris being at the heart of the cultural life. The luxury of city life worked through to the country homes of the aristocracy which set an example to all Europe. The houses were extended with libraries, boudoirs, dining rooms, ballrooms, dressing rooms, bedrooms, workrooms and quarters for the servants being added. To give each room
its distinctive function, the range of furniture also became extended.
France — Regency and Rococo
During the Duke of Orleans’ regency rooms were still furnished with robust furniture but in the second half of the eighteenth century this altered radically. The fashion switched to lighter, more elegant designs that were also somewhat decadent in their decorative style. This made itself apparent in furniture with flowing lines, S-forms, and scrolls. Rococo was a fairly radical style period that endured for a shorter period in France than in other European countries. Customers made ever increasing demands on the furniture makers and furniture was required that was larger in size.
This caused a demarcation among the furniture makers with them specialising for instance in a particular type of expensive wood which they then made into furniture of the very highest standards. This was equally true of the bronze founders who engraved their adornments as if it were jewellery.
Increased demand brought about a certain amount of standardisation. The ebenistes started to buy in timber, drawers, mouldings, marquetry, and handles and catches. All the ebenistes were required to sign their work from 1743, except for those working in the service of the King and yet it can be extremely difficult to identify a maker. This is because all the ebenistes also sold furniture made by others and it was their custom to sign all the furniture that they sold.
Daily life for the upper echelons of French society was extremely lively. Lots of callers were received and many visits also made, and in the evening they either attended or gave dinner parties. Lots of different types of seating were therefore needed which had to be comfortable.
Only curved forms would do for these. Among the new types of seating there was a short upholstered sofa of which one type was known as a berg&e.
This had a closed back.
There was also the bergere a joue, which somewhat resembled a modern wing chair, and a number of versions of the chaise longue for lounging on. A chaise longue that was open at the front was known as a turquoise, while the variety with upholstered armrests was known as a vieilleuse.
A canape has open armrests at the side, while a sofa has S-form closed side arms. The dressing table was accompanied by a fauteuil de toilette and a desk or bureau by a fauteuil de bureau. Rococo furniture was decorated with brocade, damask, velvet, or satin. Damask came from Genoa, Lyon, or Peking. Gobelin tapestry and cloth with petit-point embroidery from the state factory at Aubusson were used to upholster furniture. Woven reed was also used to make seats and chairs backs.
The gilt carved cartouches and shells of Italy disappeared from decorations to be replaced with unrestricted compositions with ribbons and flower stems.
The rocaille from which some say Rococo got its name came into vogue around 1750. There was a movement, up to the middle of the century, away from structure-led form towards ornamental design and was expressed also in the bronze embellishments. These were applied to table legs for example where stringers and legs met. A piece of furniture with a purely decorative function is the Rococo console which eventually replaced the console table.
Cabinets disappeared from interiors during the Rococo period except for in country homes and those of the citizenry, although there were half-height cabinets with two doors serving as wash-stand chiffoniers known as meuble d’entre deux and small bookcases with two doors. There would be a games table in
the salon, sometimes with a chessboard inlaid into its top and the round gueridon or pedestal table was made for all manner of small items. There would be a large table in the dining room together with a whole series of smaller tables and for when they wished to talk without being overheard by the servants, there would be a ‘dumb waiter’ on which the staff would leave the food before retiring. In a ladies’ room there would certainly be a dressing table or table de toilette which later became known as a poudreuse. The lady would also have a writing table or bonheur du jour in one of her rooms. Men’s desks were much heavier in appearance, usually made from palisander but other words were also used for bureaux. Flat-fronted bureaux were popular until 1750 after which the cylindrical bureaux became more fashionable.
There would be several night tables in the sleeping quarters: the tables de nuit and tables de lit. During the Rococo period beds became more elegant and graceful but often with whimsical valances from which their names were derived of lit a la Chinoise, l’Anglaise, l’Allemagne, or l`Italienne. No chests or coffers were to be seen anywhere in the salons, these had been replaced by a commode with two attendant corner cabinets.
The form of the commode had also changed. The curves of the front had now disappeared and the bronze handles and catches were geometrically arranged. The bottom of the commode was bowed. As the years passed, Rococo became increasingly more complex. Bronze ornamentation and intarsia inlays now covered the entire fronts of pieces, without regard for the drawers.
Subsequently the decoration moved more to the sides of pieces. Bronze ornamentation became more simple with cleaner lines after 1740. Whatever their specialisation, virtually every furniture maker produced commodes during the Rococo era. Some of the famous names are J.P.
Latz, J.F. Leleu, Nicolas Pineau, F. Oeben, J.H. Riesener, Bernard van Risen-burgh, and Abraham Roentgen.
There was strongly exotic side to Rococo so that lacquered furniture was extremely popular at this time. Rococo flourished most during the first half of the eighteenth century and at this time French lacquer-work production overtook even that of the Dutch who had been the biggest producers of reproduction chi-
noiserie and the largest importers of Chinese and Japanese lacquer items. The Dutch Martin brothers were the major producers of reproduction chinoiserie.
Germany and Austria
The political situation had as great an influence on the furniture industry during the Rococo period as during the preceding era.
The artistic and cultural leanings of the individual courts depended both on their geographical position and political realities. Hence the main cities of Berlin, Dresden, Munich, and Vienna took their lead from the French court.
The German/Dutch Rhineland and the area between Liege and Achen differed markedly from the German/French Rhineland. There was a clear preference for Dutch and English style furniture in northern Germany.
The biggest variation in types of furniture and their styles resulted from the personalities of the persons commissioning them. When German makers did follow French inspiration they did not do so closely. This resulted in the Bandestil or `banded style’ which got its name from the banding motif popularly used until the mid eighteenth century on much furniture, but specially on bureaux.
A German Rococo secretaire had a style of its own, with a curved form which gave a far from restful appearance. The legs and corners were also slightly bowed and slanted. These secretaires were mainly made of ebony and fitted with drawers. Colourful marquetry was very popular for decoration. Frankfurt cabinets had a similar appearance and were therefore also extremely popular.
Northern makers who followed French ideas for commodes fitted them with three, four, or five drawers but they used no veneer. Further south, in contrast, a commode was deemed to be a tall cabinet finished in walnut veneer. This was finished unpretentiously with iron handles and fittings and had straight sides. The only decorated examples were those for aristocratic houses of the princes. The commode was a piece of furniture for the common folk. These were finished with refined carving in unvarnished oak and walnut in both Achen and Liege. These cities also made corner cabinets for tableware, wardrobes,
small and tall dressers, and display cabinets.
The bureau was adopted from France too but German versions were both lower and less deep.The glazed fronted Dutch cabinet was further developed in north-west Germany and there was also clearly a Dutch influence in their lacquered furniture. Some chairs were both lacquered and decorated with inlays. The most common furniture though is made of stained walnut and oak.
The most precious pieces were gilded. Furniture made of beech or lime was usually painted yellow or white. Luxury items of furniture were also made in some places in Austria and Switzerland, often with the help of important artists. There are also delightful country pieces from this era. Rocaille motifs continued to be used in painted decoration until the middle of the nineteenth century.
France - Louis XVI
A desire for the classical world returned in the middle of the eighteenth century resulted in a number of artists making journeys to Greece and Italy. Classicism became more widely known through their books, lectures, and works of art. Excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii produced a great array of artistic treasures which inspired many contemporary artists.
This also coincided with a movement in art towards simplicity and naturalism. This trend manifested itself first in furniture, before the other arts. Furniture makers once more used motifs such as plaited garlands, egg and tongue mouldings, Hermes, nymphs, lion’s heads, vines, rosettes, bull’s heads, and Doric friezes. Rococo had shown a preference for gilding, white paint, and light colours. The mouldings and bronze ornamentation now faded into the background. Muted coloured veneers
Louis XVI dining chair.
From the 1880’s, at the end of Rococo, inlays of Sevres porcelain had been used together with glass painting and lacquer from Asia. Floral motifs were popular for upholstery fabrics. Chairs were not just required to look fine but also to be comfortable. The backs of chairs became rounded or oval in the 1870’s. These were crested with carved decoration. Legs resembling fluted columns were popular. The types of seating did not change though.
A newcomer was the three-seat sofa known as a confidente. The sides of both sofas and bergeres were now generally straight. Console tables stood on a fluted column. Beds were no longer placed in an alcove and the side not against the wall was decorated.The common folk’s furniture remained conservative. Items made for the citizenry
included two-door cabinets, ladies’ and medium height two-door dressers. Commodes were rectangular, smooth, and mainly set on conical legs.
A newcomer to less exalted homes was the cylinder bureau.One of the best furniture makers of the time was undoubtedly J.H. Riesener.
His pieces are decorated with marquetry flowers, urns, and fruits. Furniture was decorated with many allegorical figures and bronze embellishments. Riesener partially changed his approach towards the end of the eighteenth century with the introduction of straight legs and more geometrical marquetry. He undoubtedly gave his closest attention to his rectangular secretaires and commodes with rounded corners Most of the ebenistes working for the French court were actually German.
Great names among suppliers to the court include J.F. Schwerdtfeger and Adam Weisweller. The greatest of all were Abraham and David Roentgen, who also sold to the courts of other European rulers.
A provincial Louis XVI cabinet with basin for rinsing glasses.
David Roentgen’s speciality was furniture with secret mechanisms. His marquetry decorations were based on designs by the fresco artist Januarius Zick.
David Roentgen lived in Paris between 1775 and 1780 and it was at this time that his finest pieces were made. Most of them were light in colour with bronze decoration.
The first to incorporate English ideas in furniture in France was G. Jacob, a woodcarver, who made armchairs of mahogany. The backs of his chairs were in the form of an oval medallion and they had console legs.
The fan-like fretwork form of his chair backs was very fine. The German maker J.G. Bennemann specialised after 1779 in large horizontally arranged dressers that were decorated with bronze adornments specially made by P.P. Thomire.

Later Japanese ceramics
In 1853 Commodore Nlatthew Galbraith Perry of the United States Navy entered Japanese territorial waters, forcing the country to accept diplomatic relations and trade with the West after over 200 years of seclusion. One of the effects of this exposure was the introduction of western technology, and this, coupled with the ambitions of the new Meiji Government after 1868, encouraged expansion. The town of Arita, the traditional home of Japanese porcelain, responded not only by making increasing numbers of conventional wares but also with brilliant showpieces suitable for display at international exhibitions and trade fairs, such as those held in London in the 1860x, in Paris ( 1867), and in Philadelphia ( 1876). The potters in the most important ceramic centres – Kaga, Satsuma, Kyoto and Seto – also benefited from the liberal policies of the Meiji Government. Vast quantities of pottery and porcelain saturated the markets in Europe Lind the USA. Such was the craze for all things Japanese that both impressionism and the Aesthetic Movement were inspired by the imported wares.
The range of Meiji ceramics is vast and includes extraordinarily elaborate and over-decorated earthenwares and the most delicate and flimsy eggshell porcelains. The majority arc generally considered to be of variable quality, especially the blue-and-white Arita and Imari porcelains. The mass-produced wares for the export market rarely correspond to the canons of the traditional Japanese aesthetic; the designs are mostly very busy and often lack coherence. They appear either to reflect a Western picture-postcard view of Japan or to be re-creations of earlier export porcelains. The emphasis was on space-filling decoration such as millefiori (thousand flowers) or overlapping panels of various shapes filled with diverse ornament.
ARITA
Late Imari porcelain (made in or around the town of Arita) consists mainly of decorative vases, bottles, bowls, and dishes; figures or useful tablewares
were rarely if ever made. The majority v of the production was f off-white, poorly levigated
porcelain covered in a thinnish
glaze. Surface pitting, iron flecks, and smudged cobalt indicate the somewhat
casual nature of this mass-produced output. Designs are often partly stencilled with outlines in a variable Underglaze blue, which were then infilled with an orangey iron-red, green, turquoise and gilding. The surface decoration featured either a main subject within complicated borders, or an all-over design made up of small panels showing various non-concordant subjects. For such wares the emphasis was on ornamentation –the “more-is-better” school of thought. Output includes enormous Indian dub-shaped vases with flared and frilled necks; small shallow saucer dishes; globular bottles with tall narrow cylindrical necks; multi-lobed, high-shouldered jars; and large dishes moulded in the form of a chrysanthemum. These wares arc generally unmarked, although many have impressed characters. The best Imari wares at this time were made by the Fukugawa family. In 1894 Chuji Fukugawa founded the Fukugawa Manufacturing Manufacturing Co. in Arita, which produced very refined wares -with symmetrical, soft, smoky -blue underglaze decoration.
Blue-and-white Arita wares are made of the same material as the Imari type, but the designs are not compartmentalized in the same way, relying instead on ordered floral, bird, or animal subjects. Some of the flatwares, especially the smaller dishes, were decorated entirely using stencils.
KAGA AND SETO
Although Kaga on the island of Honshu was a major centre for stoneware, it produced little porcelain of note Until the 19th century. The porcelain from the region around Kaga is known as Kutani ware. There are two basic styles of this: the first uses dark washes of green, purple, yellow, and black; the second, which was made specifically for export to the West, is known as “Red Kutani”. This export ware has a red ground and grisaille decoration showing people in romantic land- and riverscapes enjoying the delights of the season; decoration may also be heightened with gilding. another common type of Kutani ware does not use red.
By the end of the 19th century there were 434 kilns in Seto in Owari Province, producing mainly export wares. The potters generally appear to have made blue-and-white porcelains, some very close in feeling and design to the Chinese porcelains produced during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722). Output consisted of thinly potted ornamental vases and teawares, which were sent to Tokyo for decoration.
SATSUMA AND KYOTO
Although Satsuma was an important centre of ceramic production from the 16th century, the town is synonymous with the highly decorative export wares made from the mid-19th century. These cream-coloured earthenwares with finely crackled glazes and thickly applied enamelled and gilded decoration were also produced in the town of Kyoto. Satsuma and Satsuma-type wares were first shown outside Japan at the international exhibitions, resulting in a huge demand for them in the West. While some are of the very highest craftsmanship, many are of rather mediocre or poor quality, intended for sale in department stores.
In Satsuma the Seikozan studio, and in
Kyoto such potters as Kinkozan IV (1824-84) and Yabu Meizan (1853-1934), made extremely fine panelled wares decorated with miniature scenes depicting people carrying out everyday activities like fishing, playing, or strolling in parklands or along riversides. Landmarks such as Mount Fujiama were also depicted, together with animals including monkeys, cranes, pheasants, peacocks, and cockerels, and flowers
Such as chrysanthemums, irises, proms blossom,
and wisteria. Around these panels the ground was embellished with complex patterns or overlapping designs. Wares included koro (incense burners), vases, wine or sake ewers, howls, covered jars, and figures. The most sophisticated wares with the finest-quality decoration appealed to followers of the Aesthetic Movement in Europe and the USA. Most of these wares are clearly signed on the base.
NORITAKE
In 1891 the McKinley Tariff Act passed by the American Congress declared that all Japanese wares imported into the USA should be clearly marked with the word “Nippon” (the Japanese name for
One of the most important factories that produced what were known as “Nippon” wares was the Noritake Co., established in 1904 in Nagoya by Icizaemon Morimura 1875). The company specialized in the production of porcelain wares, at first copying debased Rococo-style European wares decorated with flowers, fruit, foliage. in
and landscapes i pale pastel tones with gold relief highlights. During the 1920s such well-known designer-, as the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1956) were commissioned to supply designs reflecting the current vogue for Art Deco-style tea, coffee and dinner services. After 1921 the American government decided that the Nippon marls was to be changed to “Japan” or “Made in Japan”.

Arita
• BODY porcelain
• GLAZE usually fairly thin with surface pitting
• TYPES blue-and-white and Imari-style wares
• DECORATION Imari: busy; blue and white
Kaga and SetoBody
• porcelain
• DECORATION Kaga: loosely painted with predominant iron red or grisaille; Seto, mainly delicately, drawn natural themes in clear, bright g
underclaze blue
Satsuma and KyotoBODY
• fine earthenware
• GLAZE Satsuma: warm, creamy, crackled glaze
• PALETTE enamelling in bright colours, gilding
DECORATION landscapes; people carrying out everyday activities; flowers; animals
Marks
Kyoto: seal mark for Yabu Meizan
NoritakeBODY
• at first a grey Seto body; from the each- 1920s a pure white porcelain similar to that made at the French factory of Limoges
• TYPES good quality utilitarian wares of European/ American form intended for export
Marks
Mark used on many Noritake Nippon wares (C.1911-1921); “M” is for Morimura

Side cabinets
Although side cabinets were first made in the 18th century, the golden age was the 19th, when they were produced in a variety of styles that reflected the contemporary fashion for eclecticism. The form may well have been influenced by the French chiffonier – a small shallow cabinet topped by an open shelf or shelves and sometimes a drawer – and the Italian credenza – an early form of sideboard – both of which gave their names to types of side cabinet or meubles d’appui as they were known in France.
TYPES OF SIDE CABINETS
Eighteenth-century side cabinets were generally very simple: just shelves and drawers, with few decorative features. A variation introduced in good-quality, late 18th-century side cabinets was the replacement of solid wooden doors with silk-lined ones, sometimes protected by a brass grill. Regency side cabinets retained the simple rectilinear form with enclosed shelves and drawers; decorative inlay (often metal), crossbanding and applied brass mouldings were added. Both features are often found on Regency chiffoniers, many of which also have lyre- or S-shaped supports with brass rails for the exposed shelf sections, which may also be surmounted by brass galleries. Another desirable, but rare, feature is an adjustable shelf.
Credenzas became increasingly popular in the later 19th century. They tended to be larger than chiffoniers and side cabinets, with storage or display shelves fitted at either end. The most desirable pieces have serpentine fronts and glazed side panels; pieces with straight fronts and convex glass sides are generally less desirable. Traditionally the end shelves were lined with velvet. British examples were influenced by Continental models, especially those made in France and Italy. The centre-door panels offered good surfaces for decoration and in the best examples will be decorated with good-quality, undamaged pietre dare, marquetry boullework, or panels of ivory or porcelain. Therefore some unexceptional pieces may have exceptional decoration, and vice versa.
IMPORTANT MAKERS
After the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London there was a succession of international exhibitions at which British, Continental, and American furniture-makers showed spectacular pieces in the popular revival styles of the time. In France cabinet-makers such as Alexandre-Georges Fourdinois (1799-1871) and his son Henri-Auguste Fourdinois (1830-1907), Guillaume Grohe ( 1808-85), and Jean-Michel Grohe (b.1804) produced magnificent side cabinets in the Renaissance Revival style, which was popular at the time, for the Paris Exhibition of 1867. . Their works were immediately copied by other makers, who made inexpensive versions. Other influential French makers included Louis-Auguste-Alfred Beurdeley (1808-82), principal cabinet-maker to Empress Eugenie, and Henri Orison (1825-96), who is notable for his superb ormolu mounts. Francois Linke ( 1855–1946) is arguably the greatest exponent of the Louis XVI Revival, and his cabinets remain the most sought after. Pieces by such makers are generally very expensive, but the qualities that made their work so outstanding can be found in more modest forms. They include a well-made carcase (usually associated with French and English makers; Italian carcases are generally less well made, and liable to “move” and split the thin veneers that were used); good-quality ormolu mounts, and inventive decoration that is generous and includes the plinth and sides of the cabinet. In general, British and French examples are the most collectable.
Among the well-known British manufacturers, Wright & Mansfield (est. 1860) in London, was among the prize-winning British companies; its success was largely due to the production of a satinwood side cabinet in the Neo-classical style inspired by the work of the architect Robert Adam (1728-92). Most sought after are those made by such reputable firms as T.H. Filmer of London, which, working in the Renaissance Revival style, combined ebonized wood and pietre dure on credenza-style side cabinets with marble tops. The style was also Popular in the USA in the 1870s, where it was combined with Louis XVI ormolou decoration by Alexander Roux, a French maker active in New York from c.1856. Italian makers were known for their fine ivory inlay, although the pieces were not generally as well constructed as NEW MATERIALS
In the 19th century British furniture-makers, in particular experimented with some extraordinary materials in an attempt to capture the imagination and the purse-strings of the public. One of the success stories was the papier furniture made by Jennens & Bettridge (active 1816-64) in Birmingham, who from the 1820s used japanned papier-mache in conjunction with metal or wood frames to produce a range of furniture, and in 1825 patented a technique for incorporating mother-of-pearl inlay in papier-mache. In the 1840s and 1850s there were some 30 companies in Derbyshire producing marble furniture, in particular inlaid table tops influenced by the Florentine pietre dure models lent by the Duke of Devonshire from his collection at Chatsworth House. As a less expensive alternative, G.E. Magnus patented a technique in 1840 for colouring slate to simulate marble, and at the Great Exhibition he displayed a range of pieces; however, slate cabinet work was very unusual.
French and British examples. A notable exception was the work of Giovanni Battista Gatti (active 1850-80), prizewinner at the exhibitions in Paris in 1855 and 1878, who produced extremely well-made cabinets set with ivory and pietre dure plaques in the Renaissance Revival style.
In France, Rococo Revival side cabinets often had panelled doors with vernis Martin (a type of japanning) painted with fetes cbampetres (outdoor scenes) scenes after paintings by the 18th-century French artist Antoine Watteau, who specialized in this type of outdoor scene. Others were set with Sevres porcelain plaques, similarly painted or with flowers and birds. The more formal decorative vocabulary of the Louis XVI Revival included brass inlay and gilt-bronze mounts in Neo-classical motifs. Continental pieces were retailed by such British outlets as W Williamson & Sons (active c.1880-1920) in Guildford, and Maples of London, which imported French furniture during the 1880s.
• TYPES side cabinets were produced in three main styles: the side cabinet with enclosed shelves; chiffoniers (with exposed shelves on top of a cabinet); credenzas (with end shelves).
• DAMAGE the condition of the carcase and decoration is important; pietre dure and Boullework is very
difficult and expensive to restore.
• COLLECTING French and British makers were leaders in the field, with British makers influenced by French and Italian styles; Regency side cabinets and chiffoniers are generally more refined than many Victorian examples that were mass-produced; took for good-quality pieces with brass galleries, pleated-silk door panels, lyre-shaped shelf supports; original decoration, feet, and glass will usually add to value; some pieces of lesser quality may have superior decoration in the form of metal, ivory, or porcelain plaques that were taken from furniture made during an earlier period.