Posts Tagged ‘antique german furniture’

WINE-GLASS, BLUE GLASS CASED OVER
GLASS, with ACID-ETCHED DECORATION
Benjamin Richardson, England, 1857
I It. 143 mm (563 in.)
Acid Etching: Although acid-etched glasses
arc known to exist from the 17th century,
the process was not generally used in glass-
making until the 19th century, with the
discovery of hydrofluoric acid. Heinrich
Schwanhardt (d.1693), son of the Nurem-
berg engraver Georg Schwanhardt, is
recorded to have engraved glasses with
acid, one example attributed to him being
dated 1686. The technique can be used
either to cut through one layer of glass to
another, as in the glass illustrated, or to
provide a single-layered glass with a matt
finish. An acid-resist such as wax paraffin
covers the parts that are not to be affected,
the pattern having been cut through the
resist. The surface of the glass is then
treated in an acid bath (such as a mixture
of 100 parts of water, 10 of potassium
fluoride and t part hydrochloric acid).
Benjamin Richardson of the Richardson
firm of Stourbridge took out a patent to
etch glasses in 1857.
VASE WITH ACID-ETCHED DECORATION
J. & J. Northwood, England, r.1878.
Ht. 216 mm (85 in.)
It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries
that acid-etching became at all an accepted
mode of decoration. In England it is
known that the Dudley firm of Thomas
Hawkes used the technique in the 1830’s.
Besides flat glass objects, wine-glasses,
bottles and vases were being acid-etched
by the 1840’s. John Northwood and T.
Guest were involved in the Richardson
experiments with acid-etching, and in the
186o’s established themselves as individual
firms specialising in etching. They were
known as J. 8c J. Northwood, and Guest
Brothers respectively, and produced a
quantity of etched work in the later 1860’s
and 1870V The skill and delicacy of the
etching they achieved can be seen on the
vase illustrated, made at the J. 8c J.
Northwood works and shown at the Paris
Exhibition of 1878. Acid-etching was by
no means a technique confined to England,
however.
The Techniques of’Taking Away
As Maurice Marinoi of Trance grew to
understand the nature and working of
glass, he experimented with its ornamen-
tation. In 1922 he began using the
technique of acid-etching in a manner
distinctly his own. The process had been
used by French glass-makers since the
mid-19th century. F.mile Galle, comment-
ing on the technique, had said that it would
not do for delicate work, but ‘it cuts into
certain glasses in a manner of its own’. He
used it in his factory from 1890 onwards,
and the Daum factory had also used it to
some extent. Marinot took up acid-etching
because it suited his purpose better than
any other decorative technique. When he
employed acid-etching he used the massi v e
forms he had always favoured, in trans-
parent, occasionally tinted, glass. The
etched designs cut deeply into the surface,
giving an almost sculptural look to the
glass. The whole surface of the glass was
subjected to the treatment, with the most
varied results.
Acid-etching has been used to give a matt
surface to the colourless glass vase illus-
trated. This slender vase has a round foot,
w ith a long stem widening slightly towards
the bowl, which is of an exaggerated tulip
shape. It is just one example of the beaut]
of modern Swedish glass. Even such an
aesthetically difficult technique as etching
has been triumphantly used to give .1
beautiful all-over textural and eye-catch-
ing finish. It has been said that ‘Sweden’s
great contribution to modern design was
to transform Functionalism from an in-
tellectual theory into a practical instru-
ment for better living’ (Polak, 1962). This
was eminently shown in her glass-making;
but besides qualities like fitness for prac-
tical purpose, toughness in wear and
cheapness of production, the general aim
from the beginning was to create objects
of beauty. The Swedes succeeded in their
glassware perhaps more than in any other
branch of modern design.
ENGRAVED AND SAND-BLASTED VASE
Hy Sverre FtTterscn, Hadeland, Norway, 1038
Sand-blasling: In the process of sand-
blasting a stream of sand, crushed flint or
powdered iron is directed on to the surface
of the glass in a jet of air. The parts of the
glass to be left plain are covered with a
stencil plate of steel, or an elastic varnish
or rubber solution painted on to form a
protective shield. The type of finish is
varied by altering the size of the nozzle, or
the abrasive, or the air pressure. The
technique has been in use since 1870,
though it has rarely been applied to vessel
glass, except for lettering on mass-pro-
duced items, and is mainly used on glass
panels for decorative architectural use.
One of the more successful uses of sand-
blasting on vessel glass was by Sverre
Pettersen of Norway (1884-1959), who
was engaged as designer to Hadelands
Cilasswerk in 1928—at that time the only
factory for table glass and decorative glass
in Norway. During the ‘thirties he pro-
duced some very interesting pieces with
sand-blasted decoration.
PLATE WITH SAND-BLASTED ENGRAVING
By I adislav Oliva, Czechoslovakia, 1959
Diam. 362 mm (1425 in,)
Such are the difficulties attached to using
sand-blasting for anything but the heaviest
surface decoration that only very occasion-
ally are satisfying examples of the tech-
nique to be found. One of the exceptions is
this plate, designed and executed by
Ladislav Oliva (b. 1933) in Czechoslovakia.
The plate, in clear colourless lead crystal
glass, has a slightly raised rim, and the
grille-like decoration is in the form of cuts
about to mm (4/ioths in.) deep. Oliva
manages through this technique to give
the glass a new and exciting appearance.
His decorative themes always seem to
result from the natural lights of the heavy
glass mass. The matt finish that sand-
blasting imports to the glass can be very
pleasant to the touch, although sometimes
it can give a fairly rough effect.
The  century has been called the ‘golden
age of glass”, for it added many new tech-
niques to the glass-maker’s repertoire. This
sudden burst of activity can be put down to
many factors, including ‘the industrial revo-
lution, the relaxation of government controls
on the industry (specifically in England) and
a pride of craftsmanship born of freedom’
I Revi, i<)5g). Not since the Italian Renais-
sance had there been such an interest in new
glass-making ideas. In America the larger
firms hired scientists to discover new methods
of colouring glass, one of the best-known
being the Englishman Joseph I^ocke. In
Britain and on the Continent there was keen
rivalry in producing new types of art glass
for a highly competitive market. Demand
rem lied its zenith towards the end of the
I ii torian era. Since then, though new
techniques have still greatly interested glass-
makers, the art glass produced has reflected
the inherent qualities of the material, rather
than added decorative effects.
Pearl Satinglass, also known as Pearl Ware,
Mother-of-Pearl Satinglass and Verre de
Soie, can be found in a variety of patterns
and colours, but basically it shows the
technique of keeping a symmetrical or
controlled pattern of air traps within the
body of a vessel. The vase illustrated shows
a typical example in the so-called hobnail
pattern. Benjamin Richardson of England
filed the first patent for this technique in
1857. His method was quite simple. A
gather of glass was blown into a mould
which carried the pattern in projected
form. The piece, thus indented, was
covered by a further gather of glass, which
caused air traps to form over the pattern.
Another method current in England and
America in the late 19th century was to line
a heated mould with glass tubes, either
clear and colourless or coloured, and to
blow a bubble of glass into this mould.
BOWL OPAQUE IVORI
COLOURED GLASS CASED WITH A P.AIJi RUBY OUTER
LAYER
Stevens & Williams, England, about 1885
lit. 140 mm (55 in.)
The tubes would thus be caught up and
marvered into the body of the glass. By
twisting the paraison the worker produced
articles of glass with pearly swirled stripes
on the outer surface. This method was
probably used to produce the body of the
bowl illustrated, which has been further
worked to form a frilly rim, and has the
heavy applied decoration current around
1885, Patents to produce Pearl Satinglass
were filed by firms in New York in 1881
and France in 1885. The Mt. Washington
Glass Company of the U.S.A. filed patents
in 1886, which also suggested using heat-
sensitive metal to colour the glass, and
giving the article a lustreless finish by
using an acid bath, or by sand-blasting.
The Phoenix Glass Company of Pennsyl-
vania filed patents in 1886, 1887 and 1888;
the final patent described the use of two
moulds, one to pattern the inner wall of
the article, the other to be used after the
outer casing of glass had been applied.
FAIRY LAMP IN PEARL SATINGLASS, RAINBOW STRIPED
IN BLUE, ROSE, YELLOW AND APRICOT
About 1885. lit. 152 mm (6 in.)
The finished product made by the tech-
nique last described displayed a criss-
crossed network of pearly-indented lines
contained in the body of the article.
William Webb Boulton, who had the
Audnam Bank glass-house in England,
filed a patent for Pearl Satin Glass in 1885.
Other English glass-houses manufactured
this type of glass, notably Stevens &
Williams of Brierley Hill, who called it
‘Verre de Soie\ Much of the Pearl Satin-
glass produced in the late 19th century
came from Bohemian and French factories.
These cheaper wares, supplied by factories
at Steinschonau and Altrohlau, Bohemia,
effectively ruined the market for the finer
wares of England and America. Many
different means were used to colour Pearl
Satinglass. The rainbow striping suggested
in this fairy lamp was produced by laying
coloured rods of glass on the body of the
article before it was fully formed.
VASE IN PEARL SATINGLASS
Thomas Webb & Sons, England, probably early
iSoo’s. Hi. 260 mm (1025 in.)
The technical development of trapping air
in moulded recesses between an opaque-
glass body and a tinted layer was further
refined by Thomas Webb & Sons of
England. In the magnificent example
illustrated the vase has a diamond air-lock
pattern between opaque and translucent
layers of glass, but has been covered by an
outer layer etched away to form a floral
pattern in relief; the whole article has a
satin finish. In 1889 Thomas Webb
patented this process for manufacturing
cameo relief designs on articles of Pearl
Satin Ware. After the diamond air lock
pattern had been produced in the usual
way, an extra coating of opaque white or
coloured glass was applied. The design
was painted on to this coating with acid-
resisting inks; when the article was plunged
into an acid bath, the acid dissolved away
all glass not protected by the resist. The
glass-maker had to be extremely careful
not ti) leave the object in the acid too long,
lest the acid reached the air traps.
FOOTED VASE, WITH CORAIE1NE DECOR AI ION
Last quarter of iqih century. 111. 127 mm (j in.)
Corulene: ‘The vase illustrated displays a
type of decoration that became popular
from its introduction in the last quarter of
the 19th century and is known as
‘Coralcne’. A design was painted in enamel
on the surface of a glass. Tiny glass beads,
which could be clear, coloured or opales-
cent, were then applied and stuck to the
enamel paint of the design. The object was
next put into a muffle-kiln, where the
enamel and beads were fired firmly into
place. Decoration could be in the shape of
coral, but is also seen in fleur-de-lis,
herringbone, sheaf of wheat and many-
other patterns. This type of decoration is
found in all colours and on all types of
glassware. Coralenc was so named by the
Mt. Washington Glass Company in the
U.S.A., and by several Continental and
English glass manufacturers. Its use was
not restricted to any one factory.
Amberina is generally recognised as a
clear amber glass shading to red at the top.
The patent for it, dated July 24, 1883, was
granted to Joseph Locke of the Libbey
Glass Company. This remarkable man was
born in Worcester, Kngland, in 1846 and
worked first as a potter. Guest Brothers of
Stourbridge, etchers and decorators of
glass, engaged him, but later he was
persuaded to join the firm of Hodgetts,
Richardson & Company, where he pro-
duced his copy of the Portland vase. After
various employments, Locke finally went
to America in 1882, where he was signed
on by the New Kngland Glass Company
of Cambridge, Mass., later to become the
Libbey Glass Company of Toledo, Ohio.
‘Amberina’, ‘Pomona’, and ‘Agata’ glass
are only a few of his achievements while in
their employment. Amberina was the first
patented method for producing shaded
and parti-coloured glassware from a sen-
sitive homogeneous metal.
To produce Amberina a very small amount
of gold in solution was colloidally dis-
persed in a transparent amber glass metal.
When an object had been made from this
mix, it was allowed to cool below a glowing
red heat and then certain parts were re-
heated at the ‘glory hole’ (a small opening
in the furnace). This caused a red colour to
strike in the reheated portions—but over-
firing caused a fuchsia or purple shading.
Further patents were issued either to
Locke or to Kdward D. Libbey. An
interesting development was the produc-
tion of blanks composed of sensitive
Amberina glass which, after moulding,
were reheated to produce a deep ruby
colour on the outer surface only. A design
would be cut through to the undeveloped
amber colour below, giving a rich effect.
Amberina was made in Cambridge, Mass.,
between 1883 and 1888 by the New
Kngland Glass Company. A fine though
short-lived revival was made between 1917
and 1920, when the firm had moved to
Toledo, Ohio; one of its products is
shown above.
New England Glass Company, U.S.A., 1886
Ht. 178 mm (7 in.)
Almost every glass company in Europe and
America probably made Amberina at some
time during this period. A new technique
was patented for the New England Glass
Company in 1883 and was called ‘Plated
Amberina’; this was unique to that firm.
A piece of opal or opalescent glass plated
with a gold-ruby mixture was reheated at
the ‘glory hole’, so that it would develop
deeper and lighter shadings on its outer
surface. When Amberina metal was used,
the shading would of course be amber-to-
red. However, other colours could be
made: a sensitive cobalt and ruby glass
mixture would produce a plated ware
shading from blue to ruby. Canary, blue
and green colours were also mentioned in
the patent. Plated Amberina invariably has
moulded ribbed decoration, as in the
example shown, though this had no par-
ticular bearing on the specifications men-
tioned in the patent. It was manufactured
only from 1883 to 1886.
PARFA1T oi.ass in rose amber glass
Ml Washington Glass Company, U.S.A., 1886
Ht. 127 mm (5 in.)
The Mt. Washington Glass Company,
New Bedford, Mass., attempted more or
less successfully to produce its own
Amberina glass under the name ‘Rose
Amber’. This was in every way similar to
Locke’s Amberina. Needless to say, the
New England Glass Company had an
injunction granted in 1886 in their suit
against the Mt. Washington Glass Com-
pany for infringement of their patent.
The Circuit Court of the United States
forbade the New Bedford firm to produce
its Rose Amber wares. However, it did not
seem that this injunction had any effect.
The New Bedford Board of Trade Report
of 1889 describes the making of Amberina,
Rose Amber, by ‘two companies, of which
the Mt. Washington was one’, and de-
scribes how ‘it caught the popular fancy
and was all the rage for about two years’.
According to this report it was the success
of the Amberina glass that caused Mt.
Washington to go in for an opaque shaded
ware—Burmese glass.
AMBERINA GLASS
New England Glass Company, U.S.A., iS
iii. 121 mm (475 in.)
WINE-GLASS IN ALEXANDRITE GLASS
English, beginning of 2olh century
Ht. 114 mm (45 in.)
Quite a number of Amberina pieces were
pressed or press-moulded. This piece can
definitely be attributed to the New Eng-
land Glass Company, since it follows a
design sketch made by Joseph Locke in
1884 when he was head designer for the
Cambridge winks. I lobbs Brockunier &
Company of Wheeling, West Virginia,
were licensed to manufacture pressed
Amberina by the New England Glass
Company in 1886. Sowerby’s Ellison Glass
Works Ltd., Gateshead-on-Tyne, Eng-
land, were also licensed to produce pressed
Amberina in 1883. A transparent, homo-
geneous glass shading from pale amber to
a delicate rose tint was press-moulded by
the firm of CristalletICS de Baccarat of
France from 1916. Known as ‘Rose Teinte’,
or to collectors as ‘Baccarat’s Amberina’,
it was reintroduced in 1940 as a popular
item. Its delicate colours were a result of
using less gold salts in the glass, but its
similarity to the American Amberina and
Rose Amber is undisputed.
‘Alexandrite’ glass, a single-layer glass of
three blended colours, first appeared about
1900, and is reputed to have been made by
the two English firms of Thomas Webb &
Sons and Stevens & Williams. 11 started off
as an amber glass; a portion would be re-
heated to rose, and reheated again to blue
on the outer rim, producing an exception-
ally beautiful effect. It is found in plain as
well as patterned surfaces. Stevens &
Williams used a differing technique to
produce the same effect. They cased a body
glass of transparent amber with rose and
blue glass. The outer casings of blue and
rose were then cut away, to reveal the
yellow glass beneath. Kolo Moser, a glass
designer of Bohemia of the early 1900’s,
produced an amethyst transparent glass
which carries the mark ‘Alexandria, but
this one-colour ware should not be con-
fused with the work attributed earlier to
Webb and Stevens & Williams.
PITCHER IN RUBY GLASS WITH DEVELOPED
OPALESCENT DESIGN
I hi i ijih century. I It. 279 mm (11 in.)
Opalescent Glass: In the late 19th century
glasses with raised opalescent white de-
signs became very popular. A coloured
gather of glass was heavily coated with a
sensitive, clear colourless glass containing
bone ash and arsenic. This was blown into
a patterned mould to give it the raised
design. It was then cooled slightly and
reheated, the raised parts striking an
opalescent white, while the background
retained the original colour. Inexpensive
glassware in this technique was produced
by Hobbs Brockunier & Company of
Wheeling, West Virginia; Alexander J.
Beatty & Sons of Steubenville, Ohio;
Phillip Arbogast of Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania ; John Bryce & Company of Pitts-
burgh ; King & Company of Pittsburgh;
and Doyle & Company of Pittsburgh, and
others. Thomas Davidson of George
Davidson & Company Ltd. the Teams
Glass Works, Gateshead-on-Tyne, Eng-
land, patented in 1889 a process for making
a pressed, shaded version, in which the
opalescence was either white or of the
same shade as the body metal.
VASE IN BURMESE GLASS
Ml. Washington Glass Company, U.S.A., 1885
Ht. 305 mm (12 in.)
‘Burmese’ glass is a single-layered glass
shading from opaque greenish-yellow to
deep pink at the top. It was developed by
the Mt. Washington Glass Company,
New Bedford, Mass. Frederick S. Shirley
patented his formula for Burmese in 1885
for the firm. He produced the glass by
adding small amounts of fluorspar, feldspar
and oxide of uranium to essentially the
same ingredients as used by Joseph Locke
to make his Amberina glass. The fluorspar
and feldspar gave the glass its translucency,
and the uranium oxide made the ordin-
arily translucent white glass melt a pale-
yellow in colour; the gold made the glass
sensitive to thermal changes so that when
reheated at the ‘glory hole’ it struck a
salmon pink colour, which shaded down
to the original yellow. A second reheating
caused the pink glass to revert back to its
yellow colour, a feature quite often seen
on the rim of a piece of Burmese glass.
Frederick Shirley’s formula for Burmese-
glass was patented in England in 1886.
Thomas Webb 8i Sons of Stourbridge,
England, purchased a licence to copy-
Burmese products as well as to produce
their own shapes and designs. Most ol t he-
English Burmese ware is acid-finished,
though Mt. Washington produced both
glossy and acid-finished Burmese ware.
Thomas Webb & Sons called their glass
‘Queen’s Burmese Ware’. The glass was
much used for the patent ‘fairy lights’ or
small individual candle shades so popular
in England and America in the late
‘eighties. Queen Victoria ordered a tea-set
in Burmese glass from the Mt. Washington
Glass Company, enamelled with what was
to become known as the ‘Queen’s’ design.
The ornamentation of Burmese ware was
often of a highly decorative order. Verses
by well-known poets, Egyptian scenes, and
bird and animal portrayals were included
in enamelled motifs. Occasionally, finely
wrought applied decoration w ould be used.
Peach Blow: When a ‘Peach Bloom’
coloured Chinese porcelain vase was sold
for $18,000 in 1886, this caused such a
sensation that products labelled ‘Peach
Bloom’ or —slightly changed ‘Peach
Blow’ attracted many sales. ‘The glaze on
the vase was described as being the colour
of ‘crushed strawberries’. The magic of
the name attracted the attention of manu-
facturers of coloured art glasses, who tried
to devise new types suitable for this name.
Hobbs Brockunicr & Company of Wheel-
ing, West Virginia, produced such a glass
and called it ‘Wheeling Peach Blow’.
Replicas of the ‘Morgan’ vase were made,
like the example illustrated, in both glossy
and acid finishes. The moulded Stand with
its five-headed griffin is in an unimportant-
quality amber glass, hut the vase itself is
made of white opal glass plated with 1
transparent amber glass, made heat-sensi-
tive with gold salts. Reheating caused the
glass to strike a ruby colour, shading to
yellow or amber.
The Mt. Washington Glass Company
filed trade-name papers on the terms
‘Peach Blow’ and ‘Peach Skin’ through
Frederick S. Shirley in 1886. As a
colourant for their new products Shirley
substituted a small amount of cobalt or
copper oxide, instead of oxide of uranium
as in making Burmese. This produced a
homogeneous glass shaded pale grey-blue
to a delicate rose tint in the reheated
portions. When plunged in acid the surface
acquired an all-over slightly grey cast. As
it is a single-layered glass, the shading is
the same on the inside as on the exterior.
The Mt. Washington Peach Blow wares
were manufactured in similar shapes to
their Burmese ware. Moulded and applied
decoration were used, as well as gilding
and enamelling. The example illustrated
shows the ‘Queen’s’ design, as ordered by
Queen Victoria from the firm. The pattern
is of conventionalised flowers in raised
enamel, much of the decoration done in
pure gold reduced with acids.
The success of its Amberina glasses caused
the New England Glass Company to
experiment further with heat-sensitive
glasses. One of the resulting products was
patented by Edward D. Libbey in 1886
and called at first ‘Wild Rose’, later ‘Peach
Blow’. It is a single-layered glass shading
down from red to white in the lower part
of the piece. To produce it, an opal glass
was combined with a gold-ruby glass in
one pot. When a vessel had been formed,
reheating produced the rose colouring in
the required parts. Glasses made from this
metal were moulded, decorated with gild-
ing and enamelling and also acidized to a
satin finish. Occasionally, they would be
left in the original glossy state. The vase
illustrated was decorated by Joseph Locke
for his daughter Nora. The etched reliel
designs covering the surface of the glass
have been outlined and highlighted with
gold traceries and a dark brown mineral
stain.
At about the same time that the U.S.A.
glass-making firms were experimenting
with heat-sensitive glasses, both Thomas
Webb & Sons and Stevens & Williams of
England manufactured shaded wares
which they termed ‘Peach Glass’ or ‘Peach
Bloom’. Webb’s Peach Glass was cased,
the inner layer being creamy coloured with
a slight ly greenish cast in the upper portion.
It is similar in appearance to Hobbs
Brockunier & Company’s ‘Wheeling Peach
Blow’. Stevens & Williams of Stourbridge
produced a glass called ‘Peach Bloom’
which was also very much the same in
appearance. The English Peach glasses
were produced in both glossy and acid
finishes, and arc frequently found with
elaborate gold decoration on both finishes.
Occasionally, Webb’s Peach Glass will
have the Webb incised mark on the base;
Stevens & Williams ware also sometimes
bears a mark under the foot.
The Boston & Sandwich Glass Company,
Sandwich, Mass., manufactured a glass
known as ‘Sandwich Peach Blow’. This
was a single-layered glass, strawberry ice
cream pink in shading, often found in
moulded and twisted swirl decoration; see
the example above, which also has the
characteristic thorn handle of the period.
Overlay decorations in a camphor or
greyish colour are quite usual, the com-
plete piece having an acid finish. Many-
other types of glass are loosely termed
‘Peach Blow’, but basically, apart from a
slight variation in colour shading, the
products can be summarised as follows:
Webb and Wheeling Peach Blow are
always lined, but Mt. Washington, New-
England and Sandwich Peach Blow are
never lined. The Bohemian manufacturers
soon cashed in on the vogue of Peach Blow
wares, producing far cheaper glasses,
which forced the better products off the
markets, though their wares in no way-
resembled those made in America and in
England.

First created by Cartier in 1952, the design was immediately copied and reinterpreted in many variations by most of the jewellers of the time.
Contemporary daywear fashions were dominated by the classic two-piece suit reintroduced by Chanel at the reopening of her atelier in 1954, and these yellow gold earrings suited them perfectly, as well as the stylish afternoon dresses then in vogue.
Earrings simply mounted with a single pearl, natural or cultured, often of large size without any form of decorative surmount, gained in popularity throughout the decade thanks to their adaptability to both day and evening dresses and to their discreet sheen which always flattered the features of the face without being as overpowering as diamonds. Cultured pearls came back into favour after a decade of neglect; and natural pearls, whose price had dropped dramatically in the 1920S when cultured pearls became widely available, were admired again and rose in value. As cheaper alternatives, large mabe pearls were favoured within gold and diamond borders.
Left and opposite: three pencil designs for gold and gem-set earrings,
by Mellerio, i 95os.
A pair of i 8ct molten gold, diamond and baroque pearl earclips bv Andrew Grima, 1968. The stylized flowerhead surmounts support detachable pendants.
The 1960s
In the 196os the marked distinction between very precious earrings set with diamonds for the evening and less expensive gold earrings for the day disappears. All types could be worn at all times provided that they were large and decorative. Their effect was achieved not necessarily by using materials of high intrinsic value, but by exploiting contrasts of texture and colour. A good example of this style is a pair of opal, emerald, sapphire and diamond pendent earrings mounted in yellow gold in 1966 by Andrew Grima, a particularly successful jeweller and designer who can be regarded as the trendsetter of the sixties style in Britain. His earrings are typical of the time in their abstract design and in their interplay of different textures, the rough gold mounts contrasting with the smooth and polished surface of the opals. Their vivid use of colour is also typical; the bright green emeralds, the intense blue sapphires and the bright multicoloured flashes of opals highlighted with diamonds and gold are particularly striking. It is not surprising that these eyecatching earrings won the 1966 Duke of Edinburgh Prize for Elegant Design, the first and only time that a piece of hand-made jewellery rather than an industrial product gained this prestigious award. The judges’ report stated that British jewellery designers ‘are now starting to win an international reputation for their imaginative work … There is a much less inhibited attitude to new techniques, such as melting under controlled temperatures and new ways of giving different textures to gold. These have given much greater scope to the designer and have released him from the rigid conventions of setting — and much credit for this liberation, and for the gaiety that has resulted, must go to Andrew Grima, the recipient of the 1966 prize.’
Similar qualities are to be found in Italian clips set with emeralds, sapphires and gold. The amoeba-like abstraction of their design once again combines contrasting elements: the large cabochon emerald with its smooth and polished surface in contrast with the textured gold mount, and the striking use of colour: green, blue and yellow. The emeralds and sapphires, although not of gem quality, have been exploited for their attractive colour, once again indicating how contemporary jewellers were often more interested in the decorative quality of the gemstones than in their intrinsic value.
The use of uncut gemstones and natural objects unworked by man was widespread at the time, and jewellers in most countries were eager to exploit such materials. Emphasis was placed on the contrast between faceted and uncut stones, such as agate geodes, aggregates of amethyst or dioptase crystals left in their natural form. In one
P 1771, pair of long pendent earrings, sapphires, diamonds and fragments of crystal dioptase
178 are combined with rough-textured gold-work reminiscent of entwined branches. Interest in unusual textures, striking colour combinations and relatively cheap materials prompted jewellers such as David Webb and Verdura in New York and Darde et Fils in Paris to make use of exotic and colourful sea shells for their earrings. The bold contours of the polymita pieta (Cuban tree snails) with brown, orange, yellow and white stripes applied with gold lozenges by David Webb (1964-65) or with gold saw-teeth by Darde et Fils show how such materials can be successfully used. All the examples reproduced here belonged to the Duchess of Windsor, who like other fashionable women of the mid-sixties did not disdain comparatively inexpensive ear-clips provided that they were unusual and decorative. All sorts of shells of differing shapes were adopted to both short and long earrings, as is illustrated by the extraordinary late sixties example by Grima, where an elongated tusk-shaped shell from the South Pacific is enclosed in a gold wire case and its natural curve exploited to echo the contour of the face.
Nature, transmuted in abstract and stylized forms, was the source of inspiration
for many ear ornaments: for example, the intricate form of sprawling roots is the
basis for gold mounts in the earclips designed by the American jeweller Arthur King,
where the central cultured pearl or smooth coral bead is held in a surround of textured
and entwined gold wire-work. In a similar way small gold batons soldered together,
framing the large sapphires in Grima’s 1968 earclips, are reminiscent of the twigs in
birds’ nests, while in a pair of decorative and exuberant earrings by Meister of Zur-
ich (designed in 19′71 but very much in the style of the i 96os) clusters of mimosa
blossom are juxtaposed with polished gold spheres and brilliant-cut diamonds. Ab-
stract forms and different textures, consistent features of 196os jewels and earrings,
were achieved by means of new techniques such as melting under controlled tempera-
tures. The results can be seen in the gold and coral earclips by Sterl6 where the gold
mount appears as ‘frozen’ molten metal, or in the jagged textured gold edges of Marit
Aschan’s earclips of 1966, reminiscent of butterflies dipped into turquoise enamel
encrusted with diamonds. One of those who has continued since the i 96os to achieve
P. 189 infinite variations of texture in gold is Gerda Flockinger. In a stunning combination
of interchangeable earrings of 1980, the inherent beauty of the molten gold is empha-
sized by minute grains and swirled encrustations where tiny diamonds sparkle at ran-
dom. Most of these innovative examples are one-off productions and reflect the
greater importance attached to creative design rather than intrinsic value; in fact, the
jewels in their settings are worth considerably more than their break-up value, which
indicates both that people are buying more for beauty of design than for investment A pair of gold, enamel and diamond star-shaped earclips with matching brooch, and a pair of gold, ruby and diamond earclips designed as flowerhead clusters, both by Boucheron, Paris, circa 1970.
and that the designer is achieving a personal status very different from the anonymity of his immediate predecessors. Examples produced in larger quantities and not as one-offs were manufactured for a more conventional clientele, and although not as daring as the designs by Grima, Sterl6 or Marit Aschan they display characteristic sixties elements. This is noticeable in the pair of stylized flowerhead earclips by Kutchinsky, where the theme, naturalistic this time and not abstract, is made vivid by bright and smooth green and blue enamel juxtaposed with the rough textured gold border.
Other fashionable earrings, especially for day wear, were inspired by objects, plants and animals that had not been associated with jewellery in previous decades. Some of them are distinctly light-hearted, such as the frog earclips in gold and bright green enamel with cabochon ruby eyes which David Webb presented to the Duchess of Windsor in 1964; or the pineapple earclips set with stripes of calibre-cut onyx and rubies designed in 1968 by Jean Schlumberger. Surrealist themes in jewellery had already been pioneered in the mid-fifties by artists such as Salvador Dall; the ‘Honeycomb Heart’ earclips of 1954 studded with circular-cut rubies and diamonds, and paired gold wing earclips signed ‘Dall’ in black enamel are good examples. But it is only in the sixties that one witnesses in jewellery a proliferation of such witty and amusing motifs. They represented a break with tradition and went hand-in-hand with the vogue for all that was fun, innovative and daring and they suited the fashion that replaced Dior’s sophisticated New Look and opulent but measured elegance with (alternative’ clothes — trousers and miniskirts — and required ‘alternative’ jewels to match. This new social and moral climate of the sixties found expression in such outward signs as the geometric and sculpted dress of Courreges or Paco Rabanne, the miniskirt of Mary Quant, the severe and short bob devised by Vidal Sassoon — and amusing unconventional earrings.
At the same time traditional examples of high intrinsic value continued to be produced. These were designed as diamond-set stylized flowerhead clusters supporting opulent cascades, but their jagged contours, achieved by alternating brilliant-cut and marquise-shaped diamonds held in minute white precious metal claws, differentiate them from the flowing and continuous lines set mainly with baguette diamonds of the previous decade.
The 1970s
After 197o earring design, like fashions in dress and hairstyle, seems to break free from all constraint and to become almost infinitely varied. The only common feature is largeness.
One of the most characteristic types of earring for day wear was a pendant designed as a large circular, oval or drop-shaped hoop held by a smaller surmount of similar design. These were mainly carved in hardstones including rock crystal, lapis lazuli, onyx, coral, tortoiseshell and ivory or rare woods like bois d’armourette, or they could be made of gold, often decorated with bright contrasting enamels such as blue with
P f84, yellow and red. The popularity of this hoop pattern was such that one finds it is
185 repeated both in designs and extant examples from all the major jewellery firms. Van Cleef & Arpels and Mauboussin were famous for their pear-shaped onyx hoops embellished with gold and diamond motifs suspended on variously shaped surmounts, such as the example illustrated on p. 184, where the elongated onyx hoop decorated with pave-set diamond motifs hangs from a leaf-shaped surmount of brilliant-cut diamonds. Often these earrings came with a long chain necklace — the most typical jewel of the seventies — formed of similarly designed links suspending a large pendant which repeated, in an enlarged form, the motif of the earring. Boucheron favoured an upside-down drop-shaped surmount with a similarly designed but larger drop in gold, lapis lazuli, tiger’s eye, or pink coral (e.g., model nos: 37640, 37632, 3763 1 and 37750 of 197o and 1971). The great popularity of the pendent hoop earring was also exploited by Mellerio, who did not limit himself to two hoops but designed examples with three, made of textured or corded gold linked together. Besides the repetition of the pendent hoop motif, another noticeable feature of most jewellers and above all of Boucheron’s production is the use of vivid and striking colour combinations, such as pink-green-gold, brown-pink, brown-green, turquoise-purple, light blue-black-gold and red-black-white. Hoop earrings were all made of gold or carved in hardstone; they were frequently decorated with pave-set diamond motifs but never with faceted coloured gemstones.
Hoop earrings were also widespread in the USA; David Webb in New York became celebrated for his large rock crystal and diamond drop earrings with pear-shaped hoops carved in rock crystal and embellished with diamonds. The design was devised one day when he happened to see a crystal chandelier being dismantled. His heart sank at the sight of such wonderful drops being wasted and he thought immediately of earrings. His design was so successful that these earrings continued to be produced well into the 1980s.
During the 1970s the most important jewellery houses such as Boucheron, Cartier, and Van Cleef & Arpels were differentiating between unique creations set with exceptional gemstones made on commission and more readily available products at more affordable prices intended for a wider but still discriminating clientele. Many of the examples mentioned above were included in the ’boutique’ line of these jewellers and were meant for the fashion-conscious woman who was free to chose her own jewels according to taste and the colours of her clothes. The idea was to own several pairs of earrings of different colours which would be changed to suit various occasions.
The great popularity of the hoop-in-hoop motif meant that it was also adopted for evening wear. When that happened, a more precious version was produced, either
set entirely with diamonds (as the earrings by Gerard 1978-79, where the three P. s, hoops suspended from a cluster surmount are claw-set throughout with brilliant-cut diamonds) or with the hoops enlivened by coloured precious stones such as rubies, emeralds and sapphires alternately set with diamonds (as can be seen in some designs by Boucheron, nos: 37731 and 120971). Other precious examples for the evening P. Y8 repeated a similar outline of the hoop pendants but the hollow centre was filled with encrustations of exotic decorative motifs set with differently coloured gemstones. The inspiration of many of these earrings was Indian-, the red and green colours, as in the Boucheron example of 1978, suggest the combination of colours in Jaipur enamels; and the use of cabochon stones in flowerhead arrangements of gemstones is typical of Indian 18th- and 19th-century traditional jewellery. This source of inspiration is confirmed by some of the names given to designs of this period such as: Arabesque, Sultan, Nepal. It is not surprising that the Middle East and India inspired earring design, for many aspects of artistic, cultural and intellectual life in the 1970s were influenced by the East.
The short earring was often designed as a half-hoop or a hoop simply clamped to the earlobe with a clip fitting. Like pendants, they were made either of yellow gold, variously textured and worked, or set with coloured semiprecious hardstones embellished with diamonds. It is interesting to note that throughout the seventies the metal used for setting all gemstones including diamonds was yellow gold and not platinum or white gold; since the 18th century diamonds had almost invariably been set in white metal to increase the whiteness of the stones, and only in the I 97os did the jewellers switch to yellow gold. This probably has several explanations: firstly the influence of traditional Indian jewels where diamonds were set in gold; secondly a desire to break with tradition; and thirdly an attempt to make diamond, the gemstone par excellence, more wearable at any time of the day and give a more casual look to the most glamorous and evening-orientated gem; the warmth of the metal and its association with daytime jewellery made such adornments more wearable. Obviously there were disadvantages in using gold with diamonds, for example high colour, very white stones appearing of lower quality when reflecting the yellow gold mount. On the other hand diamonds known as Cape stones which possess a yellow tint look better in a yellow gold than in a white gold or platinum setting. The seventies fashion for large earrings, cabochon coloured gemstones and above all the use of gold as the sole metal for setting all gemstones, and especially diamonds, are features which continued to be popular in the following decade.
The 1980s
In the 19 8os earrings became so fashionable that they might be considered the jewel of the decade. Leading jewellers in Europe and the United States agree that by far the best selling jewels of the period were earrings. They were the favourite of the fashion-conscious woman, often being worn as the sole form of jewelled ornament. They were considered an indispensable fashion accessory to match and complement the style of an outfit, whether that of the executive woman in a tailored Armam suit by day or the extravagant and feminine woman in a Lacroix gown by night. This explains why women of the eighties owned numerous pairs of earrings and never felt that they had enough. Furthermore, earrings, unlike rings, have no sentimental implications, and can be bought, given as a gift or changed without a second thought. Demand stimulated supply — from mass-produced types marketed in large numbers to the most exclusive and one-off creations. But they all, short or long, followed a certain
P. 180, pattern: they had to be bold, flashy, large and colourful. Designs in this period are
181 extremely eclectic, but all short earrings are characterized by large, bold yet compact shapes, while pendant earrings may be distinguished by their large sculptural and three-dimensional drops which differ from the elongated linear hoops of the previous decade.
Among day earrings there was another archaeological revival, largely promoted
by Bulgari who since the mid-seventies had been mounting earrings with ancient
p. 186 coins. Greek, Roman and even I 7th- and i 8th-century coins, known as ‘gemme num-
marie’, numismatic gems, were set in sleek mounts of matt or shiny metals of differ-
ing colours. Striking effects were obtained by juxtaposing ancient, worn materials
with smooth and sleek modern mounts and by combining metals of contrasting
colours. An example is the combination of gold and silver in the 1982 gold earclips
set with a silver drachm of Demetrios I Soter, Syria (162-150 BC); platinum, gold
and electrum are placed next to one another in the 1984 clips set with two electrum
hecte struck in the island of Lesbos at Mytilene between 44o and 3 50 BC, held within concentric platinum and gold circles; and bronze or steel in combination with more precious materials became a distinctive feature of Bulgari and was employed in bold and innovative creations. Modernity is opposed to antiquity in the hoop earclips of 1980 designed as a graduated white gold band of flattened tubular linking set at the centre with two fanam yellow gold coins of the Dutch Indies 0 719-40). Although coins might seem rather uninteresting and repetitive to the layman, the variety of these earclips is astonishing: coins appear singly or in pairs, and the mounts display an unlimited variety of decorative patterns: reeded or corded wires, concentric sections, fluted elements and flattened tubular chains sometimes embellished with a few diamonds or cabochon coloured gemstones and small pearls. A compact circular form is common, since it is demanded by the shape of the coin, and a genuine archaeological concern has led to the mounts always being inscribed with the provenance and denomination of the coins.
Archaeologically inspired earrings were not limited to Italy: the Greek jeweller Ilias Lalaounis had been designing such jewels since the late 19 5os but his earrings gained popularity in the eighties, with their large size and decorative bold shapes. His designs have since been copied and reinterpreted by many other jewellers in Greece and throughout Europe.
Lalaounis’ earrings are inspired by the work of ancient Greek and Byzantine goldsmiths. Sometimes they are outstanding for their closeness to original ancient examples, while at others they are pastiches of Classical and Hellenistic themes, such as lions’ or rams’ heads, reminiscent of Greek late Classical earrings. All are in matt 22-carat gold, attempting to match the colour and texture of ancient examples. Reminiscent of Byzantine jewels are domed discs with granulation motifs encrusted with deep green emeralds and red rubies combined with pearls.
The fact that women want to own many pairs of earrings to suit different occasions has prompted the creation of large numbers made of relatively cheap materials which are nevertheless very attractive and eyecatching. Marina B in the 198os had mastered this art by setting her highly innovative and decorative earrings with semiprecious stones of various colours combined with small diamonds, yellow gold, black burnished gold and black metal. In all this variety of materials and shapes (hearts, tassels, drops, hoops) the unifying element is the striking way in which colours are combined with the sculptural, three-dimensional form of both the surmounts and the drops. For example the Cimin model of 1987 inspired by a Chinese lantern is in burnished black gold set with six blue topazes, yellow citrines, and amethysts, two pink tourmalines and diamonds. Among the most successful creations of Marina B is the Pneus earring, first designed in 1980, characterized by a squat circular pendant inspired by the pneumatic tyre of an aeroplane — hence the name. In this type the circular drop, carved in semiprecious gemstones, can be changed for similar drops of differently coloured stones such as pink tourmaline, rock crystal or blue topaz in Pendent earrings with wide and voluminous drops and compact clips in the form of large discs or fat crescents in many variations remained in favour throughout the decade both in Europe and in the United States. Bulgari’s output is still dominated by
P. 183 large earclips such as those set with a pink sapphire flowerhead with emerald leaves at the centre of a cushion-shaped panel decorated with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds; other motifs include open hearts set with sugar-loaf cabochons of precious stones of various cuts such as emeralds, rubies, sapphires and diamonds. A common characteristic of these colourful earrings is the imaginative and varied cuts of the gemstones which are shaped in order to fit the design: e.g. , the tassel or baton-shaped
P. 181 quartzes of the 1984 Najwa earring by Marina B.
The typical fitting of these earrings is a combination of clip and stud. From the late seventies ear-piercing regained popularity, losing its negative connotations, mainly because earrings fixed through the lobe are much more secure. Safety and comfort are priorities when earrings are heavy. Some eighties earrings weigh up to 4o grams, and the weight, especially in large pendent earrings, is alleviated both by the spread of the surmount and by the additional clip fitting which enables it to be distributed over a larger surface. The combined clip-stud fitting also had the great advantage of being easily adaptable to the unpierced ear by sawing off the prong of the stud.
p. 182 As ‘flash’ is the essence of earrings of the eighties, in examples where coloured gemstones were not used, large surfaces of polished or hammered gold with diamonds were favoured, such as the large disc-shaped earclips retailed by Harry Winston, the bold crescents of the Ecumes by Marina B and the double twisted hoops by Repossi, all mounted in yellow gold pave- or collet-set with diamonds. The glamour
P. 180, of gold, its richness of colour and its reflective quality were exploited also by Paloma
189 Picasso and Elsa Peretti. Both designing for Tiffany, they created earrings of very simple but bold shapes cast in gold. The glamorous effect of their stylized leaf, bean, cross, dome and hoop earrings is achieved by curving the polished gold surface and allowing it to reflect light in different ways. These earrings suited the taste of the emancipated woman of the eighties by combining feminine allure with the masculine look, gold and diamonds with cotton T-shirts and jeans.
The past decade has also witnessed an increase in the production of most lavish and expensive earrings set with exceptionally rare stones. In these cases the shapes tend to be fairly traditional, with the emphasis on the size and shape of the gemstone rather than the design.
The name of Harry Winston in New York has been traditionally associated with
this lavish production. Among his most successful works are informal diamond clus-
ter earclips, set with marquise and pear-shaped stones. The design was first created in
the sixties but it has continued to be favoured until the present day, becoming a trade
P. 191 mark of the firm. A pair of the most recent cluster earclips by Harry Winston, made
in 1989, is set with a total of 26 stones weighing 5 1.22 carats, remarkable not only
for the weight but the quality of the stones which are all D (I.e., pure white) flawless.
A pair of pearl and diamond pendent earrings by Cartier, London, 1928. This example is typical of the late 1920S for the slightly flared drop, differing from
slim and elongated drops and the earlier
for the use of white gemstones only. Their exceptional length, 9 cms, is another typical feature of earrings of the time, me, which often grazed the shoulders.
This example may be distinguished from earlier clusters by its richer and more compact contour.
Cluster earclips are also used as surmounts to suspend detachable drops set with large gemstones such as emeralds, sapphires or diamonds. An exceptional example is the Harry Winston cluster tops with D flawless pear-shaped drops weighing 34.80 and 37.12 carats respectively. Large pear-shaped ruby earrings are never found because gem quality rubies are extremely rare and can hardly be matched. Lavish ruby earrings are always set with clusters of smaller stones, such as those set in hoop earrings by David Webb.
The increasing quest for the perfect stone has meant that most high-quality gemstones set in important earrings are now accompanied by certificates from internationally recognized gemmological laboratories. The origin of coloured gemstones is stated, Columbia is prized for emeralds and Kashmir for sapphires; diamond certificates state the colour of the stone, with pure white (D) being the most sought after, and clarity is defined as the absence of internal impurities visible under ten-fold magnification. In recent years there has been growing interest in naturally coloured diamonds, blue, pink and yellow, and once again Harry Winston has been in the forefront. An example of ‘fancy’ coloured diamonds are those set with a yellow emerald-cut diamond in a border of six pear-shaped stones.
As the object of these earrings is to show off the stones, the mounts have a purely functional role with minimal impact of their own. This explains why the stones are held by minute claws which, in the case of high colour diamonds, are always in white metal. The result differs from the style of contemporary decorative earrings, where larger stones are nearly always collet-set in gold.
The rarity and value of these earrings derives both from the quality of the gemstones and the difficulty of matching them in perfect pairs, especially when one considers how many tons of diamond ore have to be sifted to find just i carat of gem quality diamond.
In the i 99os earrings show no sign of falling in popularity. Indeed their variety, splendour and ingenuity of design seem likely to rival any decade of the past. Costume jewellery, the demi-monde of the fashion world, has attained respectability and examples of it are often almost as expensive as the precious items they imitate or parody. The outrageous has become the commonplace, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish high from high-street fashion. An art form that has been flourishing for at least four thousand years is as alive as it ever was, as exciting, as beautiful.

19TH CENTURY CHAIRS
CHAIR DESIGN HAD NEVER been so
diverse as in this eclectic age. The different styles seen in other types of furniture also existed in chairs. Elements from the popular revival styles – from Classical acanthus
carvings to Gothic arches and all points in between – combined to create a multifarious riot of forms.
Chairs were often designed to complement other pieces in a room, but were also influenced by fashion, which resulted in the design of tow, wide seats to accommodate full skirts.
COMFORT FIRST
An emphasis on comfort was at the core of many mid 19th-century chair designs, especially those that emanated from France, where padded arms, seats, and backs were dc rigueur components of the Rococo- and Neoclassical-revival styles. In Britain, the easy chair was thickly padded in fabric or leather and
provided a respite from the more ascetic oak chairs in the Gothic style. There was a renewed interest in the designs of Chippendale, Sheraton, and Adam towards the end of the century.
Two separate interpretations of the Rococo style – the bentwood laminate styles of the Thonet and Belter factories on the one hand, and the padded giltwood offerings of French workshops on the other – both enjoyed popularity Classical motifs such as urns, acanthus, and festoons were equally prolific. Oriental and Anglo-Indian furniture expanded the canon of Western decorative arts to include elements from these two ancient Eastern cultures.
Salon suites al became popular in middle-class homes during this period. The suite typically comprised a sofa, a chaise longue. four side chairs, a lady’s armchair. a gentleman`s armchair, and a stool – all in the Louis XV style.
These open armchairs are made of white-painted wood and each have a flower-carved crest and apron. The seat, arms, and back are upholstered in a pale fabric decorated with a floral and foliate pattern. In each case, the
serpentine seat is supported on painted (formerly gilt) cabriole legs. The chairs are Louis XV in style and make an interesting contrast to the armchairs shown below. c.1880.
FRENCH OPEN ARMCHAIRS
Each one of this pair of giltwood open armchairs has an upholstered back, arms, and seat. The frame of each chair is carved with a scroll, ribbon, and swag crest and stiff lead
borders. Each chair has fluted, finial-surmounted supports and tapering legs, which terminate in brass casters. The chairs are Louis XVI in style. c1900.
GERMAN CHAIR AND ARMCHAIR
This solid mahogany chair and armchair are designed in the Empire style, with scrolled top rails and upholstered backs and seats. The supports. armrests, and seat rails are inlaid
with bronze decoration. The arm supports are giltwood sphinxes, while the cabriole legs have carved and gilt griffin heads and paw feet. c.1880.
BRITISH GENTLEMAN’S CHAIR
This walnut-framed gentleman’s easy chair has a Morocco-leather buttoned back and seat with studded decoration and outscrolled arms. It is a good example of a chair with coil springs. The chair is raised on turned front legs and casters. 1890-1900.
Carved splat panel
CHINESE ARMCHAIRS
These red-lacquered elm armchairs from Shangxi Province each have a scrolling top rail and a panelled splat carved with an animal and objects. Each panel seat with a carved seat rail is supported on square-section legs with stretchers. c.1880.
BLACK FOREST HALL CHAIRS
Each one of this pair of chairs has a stained and carved frame inlaid with hunting scenes on the back and seat. The waisted, pierced, scrolling back rises above a shaped serpentine seat, which is supported on cabriole legs.
AMERICAN SIDE CHAIRS
This pair of Rococo-revival, laminated, rosewood side chairs each has a shaped, moulded back, enclosing scrolling devices. The upholstered seats have a flower-carved rail and are supported on
cabriole legs.
BRITISH EASY CHAIR
This George III-style, mahogany, upholstered easy chair has a curved crest above rolled arms and is raised on cabriole legs with claw-and-ball feet. The chair has rose and beige silk damask upholstery. c.1900.
BRITISH OPEN ARMCHAIR
The rounded back and seat of this armchair in George I style are upholstered with gros and petit-point woolwork. The walnut frame has shepherd-crook arms and shell-carved cabriole legs, terminating in claw-and-ball feet.
ANGLO-INDIAN OPEN ARMCHAIR
This Empire-style armchair has a shaped top rail, a square-section back rail, scrolled arms, and cabriole legs. Every surface is covered with sadeli work decoration set within ivory and
ebony borders. c.1900.
ITALIAN ARMCHAIR
This lime and walnut armchair has an oval back with an upholstered panel framed by carved, gilt surrounds. The seat has a moulded top rail and is supported on cabriole legs. c.1840.
BRITISH SIDE CHAIR
The caned, shield-shaped back of this Sheraton-style, painted satinwood side chair is surmounted by a medallion, depicting a female figure. The seat is raised on square, tapering legs, which terminate in spade feet. c.1900.

antique chair “hale company”
antique chair art nouveau 1930
antique chair carved lions and legs
antique chair curved arm terms
antique chair examples
antique chair from czech
antique chair maple leaf carving
antique chair n.y. city
antique chair oak jacobean bobbin
antique chair patterns, designs
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antique chair with 18th century pattern
antique chair with a lion’s head on the back
antique chair with barley twist legs
antique chair with curved seat
antique chair with drilled holes
antique chair with flower pattern on back
antique chair with high arm one side
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antique chair with king carvings
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antique chais that folds over to bed

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antique armchair with built in footstool
antique armchairs with faces

The eighteenth century
The somewhat oppressive style of Louis XIV died with him. After his death life at court was characterised by elegance and a lighter touch. The effect was also felt in art with the salons of Paris being at the heart of the cultural life. The luxury of city life worked through to the country homes of the aristocracy which set an example to all Europe. The houses were extended with libraries, boudoirs, dining rooms, ballrooms, dressing rooms, bedrooms, workrooms and quarters for the servants being added. To give each room
its distinctive function, the range of furniture also became extended.
France — Regency and Rococo
During the Duke of Orleans’ regency rooms were still furnished with robust furniture but in the second half of the eighteenth century this altered radically. The fashion switched to lighter, more elegant designs that were also somewhat decadent in their decorative style. This made itself apparent in furniture with flowing lines, S-forms, and scrolls. Rococo was a fairly radical style period that endured for a shorter period in France than in other European countries. Customers made ever increasing demands on the furniture makers and furniture was required that was larger in size.
This caused a demarcation among the furniture makers with them specialising for instance in a particular type of expensive wood which they then made into furniture of the very highest standards. This was equally true of the bronze founders who engraved their adornments as if it were jewellery.
Increased demand brought about a certain amount of standardisation. The ebenistes started to buy in timber, drawers, mouldings, marquetry, and handles and catches. All the ebenistes were required to sign their work from 1743, except for those working in the service of the King and yet it can be extremely difficult to identify a maker. This is because all the ebenistes also sold furniture made by others and it was their custom to sign all the furniture that they sold.
Daily life for the upper echelons of French society was extremely lively. Lots of callers were received and many visits also made, and in the evening they either attended or gave dinner parties. Lots of different types of seating were therefore needed which had to be comfortable.
Only curved forms would do for these. Among the new types of seating there was a short upholstered sofa of which one type was known as a berg&e.
This had a closed back.
There was also the bergere a joue, which somewhat resembled a modern wing chair, and a number of versions of the chaise longue for lounging on. A chaise longue that was open at the front was known as a turquoise, while the variety with upholstered armrests was known as a vieilleuse.
A canape has open armrests at the side, while a sofa has S-form closed side arms. The dressing table was accompanied by a fauteuil de toilette and a desk or bureau by a fauteuil de bureau. Rococo furniture was decorated with brocade, damask, velvet, or satin. Damask came from Genoa, Lyon, or Peking. Gobelin tapestry and cloth with petit-point embroidery from the state factory at Aubusson were used to upholster furniture. Woven reed was also used to make seats and chairs backs.
The gilt carved cartouches and shells of Italy disappeared from decorations to be replaced with unrestricted compositions with ribbons and flower stems.
The rocaille from which some say Rococo got its name came into vogue around 1750. There was a movement, up to the middle of the century, away from structure-led form towards ornamental design and was expressed also in the bronze embellishments. These were applied to table legs for example where stringers and legs met. A piece of furniture with a purely decorative function is the Rococo console which eventually replaced the console table.
Cabinets disappeared from interiors during the Rococo period except for in country homes and those of the citizenry, although there were half-height cabinets with two doors serving as wash-stand chiffoniers known as meuble d’entre deux and small bookcases with two doors. There would be a games table in
the salon, sometimes with a chessboard inlaid into its top and the round gueridon or pedestal table was made for all manner of small items. There would be a large table in the dining room together with a whole series of smaller tables and for when they wished to talk without being overheard by the servants, there would be a ‘dumb waiter’ on which the staff would leave the food before retiring. In a ladies’ room there would certainly be a dressing table or table de toilette which later became known as a poudreuse. The lady would also have a writing table or bonheur du jour in one of her rooms. Men’s desks were much heavier in appearance, usually made from palisander but other words were also used for bureaux. Flat-fronted bureaux were popular until 1750 after which the cylindrical bureaux became more fashionable.
There would be several night tables in the sleeping quarters: the tables de nuit and tables de lit. During the Rococo period beds became more elegant and graceful but often with whimsical valances from which their names were derived of lit a la Chinoise, l’Anglaise, l’Allemagne, or l`Italienne. No chests or coffers were to be seen anywhere in the salons, these had been replaced by a commode with two attendant corner cabinets.
The form of the commode had also changed. The curves of the front had now disappeared and the bronze handles and catches were geometrically arranged. The bottom of the commode was bowed. As the years passed, Rococo became increasingly more complex. Bronze ornamentation and intarsia inlays now covered the entire fronts of pieces, without regard for the drawers.
Subsequently the decoration moved more to the sides of pieces. Bronze ornamentation became more simple with cleaner lines after 1740. Whatever their specialisation, virtually every furniture maker produced commodes during the Rococo era. Some of the famous names are J.P.
Latz, J.F. Leleu, Nicolas Pineau, F. Oeben, J.H. Riesener, Bernard van Risen-burgh, and Abraham Roentgen.
There was strongly exotic side to Rococo so that lacquered furniture was extremely popular at this time. Rococo flourished most during the first half of the eighteenth century and at this time French lacquer-work production overtook even that of the Dutch who had been the biggest producers of reproduction chi-
noiserie and the largest importers of Chinese and Japanese lacquer items. The Dutch Martin brothers were the major producers of reproduction chinoiserie.
Germany and Austria
The political situation had as great an influence on the furniture industry during the Rococo period as during the preceding era.
The artistic and cultural leanings of the individual courts depended both on their geographical position and political realities. Hence the main cities of Berlin, Dresden, Munich, and Vienna took their lead from the French court.
The German/Dutch Rhineland and the area between Liege and Achen differed markedly from the German/French Rhineland. There was a clear preference for Dutch and English style furniture in northern Germany.
The biggest variation in types of furniture and their styles resulted from the personalities of the persons commissioning them. When German makers did follow French inspiration they did not do so closely. This resulted in the Bandestil or `banded style’ which got its name from the banding motif popularly used until the mid eighteenth century on much furniture, but specially on bureaux.
A German Rococo secretaire had a style of its own, with a curved form which gave a far from restful appearance. The legs and corners were also slightly bowed and slanted. These secretaires were mainly made of ebony and fitted with drawers. Colourful marquetry was very popular for decoration. Frankfurt cabinets had a similar appearance and were therefore also extremely popular.
Northern makers who followed French ideas for commodes fitted them with three, four, or five drawers but they used no veneer. Further south, in contrast, a commode was deemed to be a tall cabinet finished in walnut veneer. This was finished unpretentiously with iron handles and fittings and had straight sides. The only decorated examples were those for aristocratic houses of the princes. The commode was a piece of furniture for the common folk. These were finished with refined carving in unvarnished oak and walnut in both Achen and Liege. These cities also made corner cabinets for tableware, wardrobes,
small and tall dressers, and display cabinets.
The bureau was adopted from France too but German versions were both lower and less deep.The glazed fronted Dutch cabinet was further developed in north-west Germany and there was also clearly a Dutch influence in their lacquered furniture. Some chairs were both lacquered and decorated with inlays. The most common furniture though is made of stained walnut and oak.
The most precious pieces were gilded. Furniture made of beech or lime was usually painted yellow or white. Luxury items of furniture were also made in some places in Austria and Switzerland, often with the help of important artists. There are also delightful country pieces from this era. Rocaille motifs continued to be used in painted decoration until the middle of the nineteenth century.
France - Louis XVI
A desire for the classical world returned in the middle of the eighteenth century resulted in a number of artists making journeys to Greece and Italy. Classicism became more widely known through their books, lectures, and works of art. Excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii produced a great array of artistic treasures which inspired many contemporary artists.
This also coincided with a movement in art towards simplicity and naturalism. This trend manifested itself first in furniture, before the other arts. Furniture makers once more used motifs such as plaited garlands, egg and tongue mouldings, Hermes, nymphs, lion’s heads, vines, rosettes, bull’s heads, and Doric friezes. Rococo had shown a preference for gilding, white paint, and light colours. The mouldings and bronze ornamentation now faded into the background. Muted coloured veneers
Louis XVI dining chair.
From the 1880’s, at the end of Rococo, inlays of Sevres porcelain had been used together with glass painting and lacquer from Asia. Floral motifs were popular for upholstery fabrics. Chairs were not just required to look fine but also to be comfortable. The backs of chairs became rounded or oval in the 1870’s. These were crested with carved decoration. Legs resembling fluted columns were popular. The types of seating did not change though.
A newcomer was the three-seat sofa known as a confidente. The sides of both sofas and bergeres were now generally straight. Console tables stood on a fluted column. Beds were no longer placed in an alcove and the side not against the wall was decorated.The common folk’s furniture remained conservative. Items made for the citizenry
included two-door cabinets, ladies’ and medium height two-door dressers. Commodes were rectangular, smooth, and mainly set on conical legs.
A newcomer to less exalted homes was the cylinder bureau.One of the best furniture makers of the time was undoubtedly J.H. Riesener.
His pieces are decorated with marquetry flowers, urns, and fruits. Furniture was decorated with many allegorical figures and bronze embellishments. Riesener partially changed his approach towards the end of the eighteenth century with the introduction of straight legs and more geometrical marquetry. He undoubtedly gave his closest attention to his rectangular secretaires and commodes with rounded corners Most of the ebenistes working for the French court were actually German.
Great names among suppliers to the court include J.F. Schwerdtfeger and Adam Weisweller. The greatest of all were Abraham and David Roentgen, who also sold to the courts of other European rulers.
A provincial Louis XVI cabinet with basin for rinsing glasses.
David Roentgen’s speciality was furniture with secret mechanisms. His marquetry decorations were based on designs by the fresco artist Januarius Zick.
David Roentgen lived in Paris between 1775 and 1780 and it was at this time that his finest pieces were made. Most of them were light in colour with bronze decoration.
The first to incorporate English ideas in furniture in France was G. Jacob, a woodcarver, who made armchairs of mahogany. The backs of his chairs were in the form of an oval medallion and they had console legs.
The fan-like fretwork form of his chair backs was very fine. The German maker J.G. Bennemann specialised after 1779 in large horizontally arranged dressers that were decorated with bronze adornments specially made by P.P. Thomire.

Baroque Furniture
The principal characteristic of Baroque is its rejection of the rationalism of the Renaissance. Baroque is much more dynamic and lively, particularly with its use of light and shade in the manner of a painter. The design of a piece and its detail were subjugated to achievement of dynamism, which was at the core of Baroque. The eye for the main lines was expressed through the materials used. Wood was inlaid with gemstones or semi-precious stones, tortoiseshell, precious metal, and ivory. Light was reflected by polished wood. Supports were turned as scrolls and an overall impression of curved form was created by the use of projecting pediments, plinths, and cornices. Much use was made of acanthus stems with broad leaves and conch shell motifs.
It is difficult to determine with furniture when Baroque replaced the Renaissance because the two styles co-existed for a time. Furthermore the characteristic Baroque elements only became fully apparent during the late eighteenth century.
France
Most of Europe, with a few exceptions, fell sway to the dynamism of Baroque. France though preferred more rigid classical lines. This found its expression in an individual French style of furniture. It was precisely at this time that greater power came into the hands of the French king and with it a greater role in artistic commissions and hence of trends at the hands of the French court.
The best artists and craftsmen worked in the Royal studios — with the establishment in 1677 of the Manufacture Royale des Meubles de la Couronne. Cabinet making became regarded as an art in itself, with cabinet makers also working as ebeniste (specialist in inlay or marquetry — the name is derived from the
French predilection for ebony inlay) and woodcarver.
In addition to the importance of construction and decoration in the making of furniture, consideration was also given to the location in which the furniture was to stand. The ebeniste, designer of the ornamentation, and the architect all made decisions about the final form of a piece. In the Middle Ages furniture had been largely portable or easily moved but during the Renaissance furniture was made for a more set place in the interior of homes. Now the far extreme was reached in which it was no longer intended that the piece should ever be moved.
A strange schism arose between furniture for the citizenry and very luxurious pieces. This also meant that different materials were used in the making of these different items. Instead of the customary walnut, more exotic types of wood were now used.
A good example of this is the use of ebony, which by the time of Louis XIII was already being decorated with coloured inlays.
The artist Andre Charles, who worked for the court of Louis XIV was exceptionally talented, and stood out from the other ebenistes. In his early period he also used Dutch motifs such as vases of jasmine, roses, and tulips in his mosaic woodwork. Later he was influenced by the designs of Berain and Marot and replaced his motifs with banding linked together with acanthus stems. His designs were formed with both negative and positive inlays such as light pewter in tortoiseshell and vice versa. Later still he replaced the marquetry of the 1660’s and 70’s as it became less fashionable.
The bed was an important piece of furniture as the whole morning ceremony of rising or lever occurred around it. The enclosed square form of the bed remained with four posts and both outer and inner curtains. The bedroom had several ante-rooms attached in which there was much coming and going of court functionaries. The chest was banished from the furnishing of rooms and was replaced by the commode which became popular in France around 1700. The commode was a development of the chest with drawer which Boulle placed on legs. In the French salons table commodes also appeared, set on tall legs, encrusted with inlays of metal and tortoiseshell. These legs were furthermore decorated with bronze mascarons or grotesque masks. The drawers too were fitted with bronze handles which also held the encrusted decoration in the veneer.
The most important piece of salon furniture was a superbly made cabinet with drawes. At first the Boulle cabinets had separate plinths but later these were integral.
Tables were adapted to the considerable demands of the time and there were numerous variations. In common with other furniture, tables too were inlaid with metal and the same was equally true of cashier’s tables, most of which had a small drawer. The older-style baluster legs were considered too plump and were replaced by cabriole legs.
Other rooms than the salons were often used for a number of purposes and as required night and toilet cabinets might be placed in them.
There were also heavy tables with marble tops plus smaller tables for lamps and suchlike. Console tables provided an architectural element.Seating in the form of fa u teu ils (armchairs), tabourets, sofas, and chairs formed part of the interiors of the homes of the wealthy and the aristocracy but cabinets did not. These were found in the homes of the citizenry but the new item of luxury furniture was the bookcase.
Many different types of armchair and chair were made. Armchairs with turned legs were widely used but later these legs were replaced with richly decorated baluster legs. These were joined together
with diagonal carved stretchers or with H-form stretchers but these disappeared with the arrival of cabriole legs.
The backs of armchairs became more all encompassing and were upholstered and rounded off at the top in an arch. The curved arms of the chairs also became upholstered.
French furniture makers were also influenced by English furniture makers. This led to the introduction of the commodite — a kind of wide armchair — into France. The canape was also partially developed from the English day bed or lit de repos.
German-speaking Europe and the Low Countries
Baroque expressed itself in Germany through very excessive and lively inlay and carving and was of considerable influence there. The elements of the Baroque style were incorporated with both imagination and consistency. The output of German furniture makers was equally diverse as German politics. Designs based on the Renaissance endured for a long time but alongside this a new style developed in the palaces, castles, and grand homes of the countless principalities, which adopted a great deal of the influences from elsewhere. Furniture was imported into northern Germany for some considerable time from the northern Netherlands. After the death of Frederick I of Prussia in 1713 late Italian Baroque started to become more widespread and the artistic centre moved to Dresden, which became one of the most important artistic centres in Europe under Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony.
The Bavarian court in southern Germany was strongly influenced by French examples and items such as console tables with French baluster legs and lighter tables in the style of Boulle were made. The encrusted decoration of this maker and also of Marot found favour here too. Cabinets in ebony from Augsburg of this period are exceptionally fine. They have inlays of polychrome stones, ivory, wood, and pietra dura (mosaic of semi-precious stones).
Furniture was largely made from walnut with intarsia inlays of other wood. Great care was taken to ensure that the beauty of the grain of the walnut was revealed to its fullest potential.
The cabinetmakers achieved considerable results in such furniture. German Baroque ornamentation was dominated from the 1660’s by heavy use of acanthus leaf motifs that had replaced conch shell forms, and by small arrow-like columns. Intarsia decorations became figurative from the start of the eighteenth century (bouquets of flowers were very popular) and no longer utilised vines, squares, or rectangular patterns. Baroque became increasingly more valid in Germany and this is clearly apparent with cabinets.
The older-style cabinet on bun feet was drastically altered. It changed into a four-door — later two-door — cabinet with heavy cornice, turned pilasters or columns, and angled fronts.
In terms of furniture, the northern parts of the Low Countries can be considered as an entity with northern Germany, although there were local style variations of course. Hamburg was an important furniture-making centre. The Hamburg four-door cabinet closely resembled Dutch Renaissance cabinets. In addition to these a fine two door cabinet appeared from Hamburg around 1700 with a straight cornice. The faсade comprised large decorated areas with continuous pilasters. A similar cabinet from the Dutch Republic of this time is the linen cabinet for storing pillows.
The partial cornices of cabinets from Dantzig (Gdansk) gave them a less fussy appearance and their square panels were decorated with mythological scenes. By contrast, cabinets from Lubeck had arched cornices. The Baroque influence ensured that cabinets from Holstein and Westphalia were embellished with figurative decorations.
The influence of the naturalistic Dutch floral intarsia decoration remained apparent throughout the eighteenth century. In addition to the main show pieces many painted and non carved pieces were made in northern Germany.
In southern Germany, new life was given to Renaissance cabinets at Ulm and cabinets from Augsburg were smaller and sometimes overwhelmingly decorated. The popularity of the Wellenschrank originating from Frankfurt was great from the beginning of the seventeenth century. This is a simply decorated cabinet in walnut veneer with an attractive curved front. Cabinets were also the most important item of furniture in northern Germany too.
There were various variants of these as elsewhere. Those from Hamburg were decorated with acanthus stems while Dantzig cabinets were smaller with one or two doors.
Commodes with pull-out leaf for writing and bureaux formed important pieces of furniture in the homes of the middle classes. Their chairs had spiral, turned, or cabriole legs and leather seats and these were also used to sit at table.
These chairs had high backs with heavy armrests and were decorated with carved banding and acanthus stems.
Many canopy beds with turned posts had large panels that were usually copiously decorated with intarsia inlay or carving. Gradually beds began to be made without valances.
Carving fell out of favour over the years so that cabinets had large plain surfaces on their fronts which gave them a monumental appearance.

Sevres
In the 19th century Sevres remained the pre-eminent porcelain factory in France both in quality and in innovation. Receiving state subsidies and patronage, it employed many eminent chemists, who developed new pastes, glazes, and decorative techniques, which kept the factory in the forefront of fashion. However, during this period there was an increasing divide between domestic or utilitarian wares and the very elaborate ornamental pieces, such as vases and large services, made for the State, for international exhibitions, and as diplomatic gifts.
A Plate from the Service des P6ches painted by L. Garneray This plate illustrates how the Sevres painters continued the late 18th-century tradition of using porcelain primarily as a medium for painting However, the motifs are no longer strictly Classical as they would have been during the 18th century Such an elaborate piece as this would have been used only for display in a cabinet.
(1840, diam. 24.5cm19lin; value J)
THE RESTORATION PERIOD
After France’s monarchy was restored in 1815, the country enjoyed a period of relative prosperity and stability until the 1840s. The Sevres factory continued to produce wares in the Empire style in the 1820s and 1830x, and continued the fashion of treating porcelain as a medium for painting; restrained Neo-classical forms were decorated all over, with little or none of the porcelain left showing. The royal family commissioned large display services, each piece painted with a scene surrounded by gilt borders with motifs such as acanthus, eagles, and trophies. However, portraits of the imperial family, and scenes commemorating the battles and deeds of the Emperor, were replaced by views of France, birds, or scenes of various crafts and trades. The finest examples of this style are the table or breakfast services illustrating industries, agriculture, and history for the palace of Fontainebleau.
The mixture of Classical, Egyptian, and chinoiserie motifs already evident in porcelain decoration before 1830 became more apparent and more complex with the introduction of Gothic and Renaissance Revival shapes
and motifs, such as grotesques and miniature
pinnacles and (rockets. Vases were painte
in imitation of 16th-century Limoges enamels with grotesques, flower swags, mythological scenes, and
scrollwork in grey on blue; this
was so successful that a specialis
enamelling workshop was set up
which operated between 1845
and 1872. Table services made
in the 1830s and 1840s for the
Duke of Orleans and the Duke
of Nemours, based on 18th-
century Rococo designs by Jean- Claude Duplessis (1690-1774), marked the revival of Rococo. From the 1840s the fashion for
treating porcelain as a canvas for painting declined. Areas of white porcelain again
became visible, particularly on everyday services. For example, the large services made for the royal residences (including those for staff use) tended to be simply ornamented, with a gilt or blue royal monogram in the centre and gold-leaf borders around the rims. This decoration was printed rather than painted, since from (.1845 the lithographic process was in use at Sevres, allowing printing in several colours.
THE SECOND REPUBLIC AND SECOND EMPIRE During the Second Republic (1848-52) Sevres suffered financial problems because there was little demand for luxury goods. Production increased again during the Second Empire ( 1852-70), when much of the factory’s output was intended either for the residences of Emperor Napoleon III, and as diplomatic gifts, or for display in the many international exhibitions. Plain domestic wares were also made in large quantities.
During the directorship of the chemist Victor Regnauld during the Second Empire there were several important developments in manufacturing and decoration. The production of soft paste was revived, although mainly at an experimental level, and slip-casting was introduced, meaning that very thin or large hollow pieces could be made. In the 1850s the chemist Alphonse-Louis Salvetat created a flambe glaze imitating Chinese porcelain, which was perfected in the 1880s; underglaze brown colours and coloured pastes imitating marble and hardstones were also introduced. One of the most popular techniques created during the 1850s was pate-sur pate: a process of building up a design in low relief on a tinted ground by applying layer upon laver of white slip and carving the details before firing.
From 1852 the Rococo Revival was the most popular style. The 18th-century forms were reproduced for tablewares and vases, but the gilding and decoration of scrolls, shells, figures, and flowers is more crowded and exaggerated than on original 18th-century pieces. The factory revived landscape panels with figures in the manner of the Rococo artists Watteau and Boucher, as well as coloured grounds, particularly turquoise and pink. Factories in Germany and France that had bought the white wares earlier sold off by Sevres to alleviate its financial problems copied this style in the late 19th century; these copies are usually described by dealers and auctioneers as “Sevres”, too, or as “Sevres-style”.
There was also a revival of the Pompeian and Classical Greek styles between 1845 and 1855, evident in the use of motifs and designs based on engravings of the antiquities of Pompeii. However, the shapes are not always Classical in inspiration, and the colours and decorative techniques, such as painting in matt colours on biscuit porcelain to imitate Classical vases, are different from those used in the 18th-century Neoclassical period. The factory was able to keep up with fashion because it had retained the moulds of Neoclassical wares produced in the late 18th century under Louis XVI. This also led to a limited revival of biscuit porcelain figures c.1860.
THE LATE 19TH CENTURY
After the establishment of France’s Third Republic in 1871 the factory continued largely to produce ornamental pieces for embassies, ministries, and government buildings, as well as simpler pieces as prizes for lotteries and public competitions.
In 1877 the sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse 1824-87) was appointed director. He introduced Japanese-inspired designs that contrasted strongly with the overdecorated pieces in a confused mixture of historical styles. The factory also developed a new paste in the 1880s, which was fired at the lower temperature. This made possible an increased range of colours and the perfection of the flambe glazes imitating Oriental porcelain. These wares were particularly fashionable in the 1880s, when there was a vogue for Japanese art.
SEVRES COPIES
Many thousands of imitations of the 18th-century Sevres style were produced by French and other European manufacturers in the 19th century. After the Revolution huge numbers of blank Sevres wares were sold off to decorators. Later decorated pieces tend to have poorer-quality decoration and gilding and, if a piece has been refired, there is usually black speckling on the base.
he Restoration period
• BODY fine, white hard paste with a clear, glassy glaze; some items made in soft paste and coloured pastes imitating marble and hardstones
• STYLE continuation of Empire style, with introduction of Rococo, Gothic, and Renaissance elements
• FIGURES biscuit portraits and busts in the 18th-century Neo-classical style
Marks
This mark was used from 1834 to 1848; the letters “LP’ stand for “Louis-Philippe”, who succeeded to the French throne in 1830
The Second Republic and Second Empire
• STYLE Rococo Revival, often combined with Gothic and Renaissance motifs
• DECORATION painting of landscapes in the style of Watteau and Boucher, or large flowers, with gilding, coloured grounds, and scrollwork; pate-sur-pate
• FIGURES small classically inspired biscuit figures revived c.1860
The late 19th century
• STYLE continuation of mid-19th-century styles; Japanesque
• DECORATION plain grounds and glazes in pure colours for Japanese-style wares; Art Nouveau stylized flower motifs in pastel shades