Posts Tagged ‘Britain’

Antique Glass Overview

‘Glass is one of the most Noble things which man hath at this day, for
his use upon the earth,’ declared Antonio Neri, the author of the first
modern textbook of glass-making published in Florence in 1612. ‘It is
more delightful, polite and sightly, than any other material at this day
known to the world.’
His opinion has been shared in civilised communities for at least
3,500 years. For instance, the glass-makers of Rome were given a special
street in the better part of the city where they could practise their art.
In the Byzantine period, in 438 A.D., the Theodosian Code exempted
glass-makers from taxation. Glass-makers ranked with the nobility in
Venice and l’Altare in Italy during the Renaissance period, and the only
trade a French aristocrat might engage in without loss of rank was glass-
making. The ‘Charte des Verriers’ granted to the Lorraine glass-makers
in 1448 gave them the right to describe themselves as ‘gentlemen glass-
makers’, and to rank equally with noblemen, with exemption from certain
taxes from which persons of rank were free. In Britain the highest in the
land could be involved with glass-making with no loss of prestige.
It is only in the last 150 years, with the advent of mechanised mass
production, that glass has largely become taken for granted as a common
material for our everyday use.
Glass, chemically speaking, is a super-cooled liquid which is formed
from a fusion of silica (usually sand, flint or quartz) with an alkaline
flux (usually potash or soda), with the addition of lime to make the glass
or ‘metal’ more durable.
These ingredients are put into crucibles (pots made of fireclay) which
are placed in a furnace where they are heated to such a temperature that
the ingredients fuse and become an orange-red molten liquid.
The glass-maker can gather some of the hot glass on the end of an
iron tube, known as a blowing-iron, by repeatedly dipping it in the
crucible and twisting it. The resulting ‘gather’ can then be blown, by
breathing through the iron tube, and ‘marvcred’, by smoothing the
gather on a flat stone or metal surface; it can be moulded, by blowing
the bubble or ‘paraison’ into a wooden or metal mould, or elongated, by
swinging the bubble on the end of the blowing-iron, or manipulated into
A 15th-century drawing of a glass-house, probably in Bohemia. In the top half of the
picture the raw materials for glass-making are being mixed and carried down to the glass
furnace. Crucibles containing the melt of raw materials arc seen inside the main furnace.
A glass-blower is ‘marvering’ (smoothing) the bubble of hot glass at the end of his
blowing-iron on a flat slab. The glass-blower to his right is reaching for another gather
of glass from the crucibles in the furnace. Glass vessels they have just made are being
placed inside the annealing oven (attached to the main furnace) to cool slowly. A man
behind the annealing oven is examining a finished vessel. (Photo: Add. Ms. 24189,
courtesy of the Trusted of the British Museum.)
Introduction
shape by the use of metal tongs, pincers, shears or other simple tools.
Repeated reheating at the furnace is necessary to maintain the plasticity
of the glass or ‘metal’ during these operations.
The leading glass-maker in a team producing the vessels sits on a
‘chair’ with long, flat, parallel arms on which he rotates his blowing-iron
(also called pontil rod or puntee—a solid iron rod to which a partly
formed vessel can be transferred) while he manipulates the glass.
Once a vessel has been formed and detached from the pontil rod it is
put into a separate furnace, where it is ‘annealed’, or slowly cooled to
relieve the tensions in the glass. Glass that has not been annealed but
allowed to cool naturally will shatter very easily.
Glass can be coloured by the addition of metallic oxides, or decolourised
by adding antimony or manganese to the mix.
When the vessel has been annealed it can be further decorated by
removing part of its surface through the various ‘taking away’ or abrasive
techniques: or by the ‘adding’ techniques of giving decoration such as
trails or blobs, enamelling or gilding. In modern times techniques of
forming and decorating glass have multiplied and form a whole subject
in themselves.
When visiting a glass collection or when buying glass, one is first of all
struck by the physical appearance of the glass—whether it is clear,
coloured, blown, moulded, enamelled, gilded, cut, engraved, and so
forth. This book is written with that fact in mind. It attempts to cover
the history of every technique of vessel glass-making in all the main
glass-making countries throughout the ages.
One further point: following modern practice, the measurements are
quoted in both metric and imperial terms, but are sometimes rounded
up a little for the sake of convenience. Occasionally the dimensions were
not available.

19th Century Mirrors. Wall Mirrors, Picture Frames. ENGLISH WALL MIRROR, ENGLISH GILTWOOD MIRROR, AMERICAN GIRANDOLE

EARLY 19TH CENTURY MIRRORS
MIRRORS, LIKE PICTURE FRAMES, are decorative so are rarely subjected to much wear. As a result, they are often gessoed and gilded. Painted examples from this period also exist, as well as Empire pier glasses, which often have mahogany frames and ormolu mounts.
From the late 18th century larger plates became available, so early 19th-century mirrors with a divided plate became less common. Although not new, convex plates became especially fashionable in Britain and the United States, and were used in dining rooms to give servants an all-round view of the table. The convex mirror plate was usually framed by an ebonized and needed slip with a gilt frame echoing the shape of the mirror. The frame
The acanthus leaves are pierced and scroll-carved.
was often surmounted with an eagle or similar motif and frequently had candle arms attached to it.
Also fashionable was the use of verrc eglomise in which glass was back-painted in black and then engraved with a design before gilding. Verne eglomise plates were frequently inserted above normal plates. Mirrors with a more rectilinear design were also popular, particularly those intended to stand above pier tables between windows. From the late 1820s, revival styles led to the reintroduction of Chippendale-style mirrors in Britain; these are often difficult to distinguish from the 18th-century originals. In Florence, boldly carved foliate frames were introduced in imitation of the Baroque originals.
The guilloche motif is stylized.

ITALIAN WALL MIRROR
This rectangular giltwood wall mirror has a carved softwood frame featuring guilloche and stylized, scrolling acanthus leaves. The whole frame has been covered in white gesso and then given an undercoat of red paint, before
being gilded. The ornate, sculptural form of the mirror frame is reminiscent of the Baroque style of the 17th century, and harks back to the designs of Andrea Brustolon and the work of the Genoese carver, Filippo Parodi.

REGENCY MIRROR
This giltwood mirror has a moulded cornice with ball decoration above a panel with a shell cresting flanked by latticework. Columns flank both sides of the mirror. Early 19th century.
ENGLISH PIER GLASS
With a concave cornice above a ring-and-leaf frieze, this giltwood and gesso pier glass has 11 plates of varying sizes divided by astragals and flanked by half columns.

AMERICAN LOOKING GLASS
This simple, late Neoclassical maple looking glass has a rectangular mirror plate set within a relatively unadorned rectangular frame. The top and sides of the mirror frame have corner blocks joined by half-section balusters with
gilded and moulded ends. Like the mirror above, this type of overmantel mirror is sometimes erroneously referred to as “Adam”, perhaps because of its rectilinear Neoclassical styling, or perhaps because such mirrors frequently featured in Robert Adam interiors. c.1835.

This giltwood and ebonized girandole has a convex mirror plate with a reeded slip. The frame is decorated with carved leaves, has four candle arms, and is surmounted by the Federal eagle. c.1825.
The circular, mirrored plate sits within a reeded ebonized slip and a ball-moulded frame. The frame is surmounted by a dragon flanked by two sea serpents. Below is a leaf-carved apron. c.1815.
This mirror is set within a moulded gadrooned frame, surmounted by a painted figure of Neptune. At the base is a giltwood figure of Triton, and foliate arms that end in candle nozzles.
This simple Regency giltwood mirror has a convex mirror plate within a circular leaf-moulded and reeded border. It might originally have had candle arms or cresting. Early 19th century. Diarn:58cm
ENGLISH WALL MIRROR
ENGLISH GILTWOOD MIRROR
OVAL MIRROR
AMERICAN GIRANDOLE

AMERICAN LOOKING GLASS
This tall, narrow, carved mahogany looking glass frame has a moulded cornice above a veneered frieze. The mirror plate is flanked by projecting blocks linked by carved urns and slender pilasters. c.1825.
AMERICAN LOOKING GLASS
The moulded cornice of this giltwood mirror is hung with ball decoration above a wreath-andacanthus moulded frieze. Below this is a tablet. The colonnettes are rope-turned. c.1800.
IRISH OVAL MIRROR
This oval mirror, one of a pair, has its original plate set within a copper frame, which is decorated with applied, alternating blue and clear crystal facets. Late 18th–early 19th century.
BIEDERMEIER PIER GLASS
The rosewood-veneered frame of this southern German pier glass has an architectural pediment above an ebonized panel depicting the Goddess Diana in gilded brass. c.1820.
AMERICAN LOOKING GLASS
This Classical mahogany and carved giltwood looking glass has an architectural pediment above a carved eagle tablet and a mirror plate flanked by colonettes. Early 19th century.
This carved and gilded looking glass has a moulded, projecting cornice above a carved frieze, with a verre tablet, and reeled pilasters. Early 19th century.
AMERICAN GILTWOOD MIRROR
This Federal mirror has a broken pediment with ball decoration above a verre eglomise panel depicting Hope with an anchor, flanked with festoons. The columns have spiral beading.

EARLY 19TH CENTURY REGENCY BRITAIN FURNITURE

THE REGENCY WAS a clearly defined
period in British history From 1811 to 1820, the Prince of Wales, who later became George IV, ruled instead of his father, who was suffering from porphyria – a form of madness. However, as a furniture style, Regency has come to embrace a wider time frame, from the 1790s to the third decade of the 19th century.
Reflecting the exuberant tastes of the Regent himself, the period begins with his commission of the Neoclassical architect Henry Holland for his London home, Carlton House, in the 1780s, and concludes with the exotic, Oriental confection that is John Nash’s
Brighton Pavilion, remodelled for the Prince of Wales between 1815 and 1823. George, the Prince Regent, came to dominate taste in the early 19th century. He and his circle drew on a diverse group of talented architects and artisans, often trained in France, many of whom had worked on Carlton House. These included the architect, Charles Heathcote Tatham, the decorators and cabinet-makers, Morel and Hughes, and the clock-maker, Benjamin Vulliamy.
FURNITURE STYLE
Regency furniture is often symmetrical with clean, rectilinear lines. As such, it was inspired by French Empire furniture and the simple late 18th-century furniture designs of Thomas Sheraton. Large surfaces were often veneered in highly figured rosewood and then decorated with gilt-brass mounts of ancient motifs, such as rosettes, paterae, laurels, and anthemia. The Liverpool cabinet-
maker George Bullock is best known for his use of patterned surfaces; he frequently balanced English timbers, especially oak, with a riot of border patterns featuring stylized flower-heads, lotus leaves, and dot motifs.
The strict Neoclassical taste found its most archaeological expression in the designs of Thomas Hope, which he published in 1807. Not only had he plundered ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome for decorative ideas, but he also attempted to recreate ancient furniture and interiors. Probably the most
typical furniture of this type is the rounded klismos chair – first known to have been produced in ancient Greece
– which has back stiles that rise from outswept sabre legs to support an almost semi-circular back.
During this period, a wide variety of side cabinets of diverse outlines came to dominate the wall space in drawing rooms, replacing the use of commodes. In the dining room, a similar role was performed by the popular sideboard and chiffonier.
ECLECTICISM
It would be a mistake, however, to see the Regency as simply a curvaceous and light Neoclassical style. It was characterized by endless variety, a freedom of forms, and an eclectic
ornamental vocabulary. George Smith, who published a pattern book the year after Hope, reinterpreted his cold, academic designs by applying Neoclassical motifs to French Empire models that also included Gothic-and Chinese-inspired furniture. Indeed, exotic forms and materials became the hallmark of Regency taste. Smith popularized Hope’s designs in his pattern book, introducing them to a wider public.
Smith inspired impressive-looking furniture, with boldly carved leopard’s masks or large lion’s-paw feet, which anticipated the slightly heavier furniture of the 1820s and 30s.

The front rail and highly scrolled ends are inlaid with trailing foliage and flowers, terminating in floral paterae.
The seat rail is inlaid with a trailing brass foliate motif.
The design of the chaise longue is influenced by the contemporary French form, the meridjenne - a type of sofa with scrolled ends, one higher than the other.
Brass inlay detail
CHAISE LONGUE
This elegant Regency chaise longue is made of rosewood and is profusely inlaid throughout with brass inlay in a foliate design. The frame has a sweeping back rail which is centred with a scrolled hand grip, and has highly decorative
scrolled end supports. The generously padded seat and arms are supported on a rectilinear front rail decorated with a foliate motif. The piece stands on outswept sabre legs which terminate in lion’s-paw feet on casters.
Sabre legs terminate in lion’s paw feet and casters.
SMALL CENTRE TABLE
The surface of this tilt-top table has a painted scene within a laburnum veneer border. It is supported on a rosewood-veneered stem, on a base with scrolled, ribbed feet on brass casters. Early 19th century
MAHOGANY STOOL
This Regency mahogany stool has a gently shaped rectangular seat with scrolled ends and light carving on the surface. It is supported on an X-frame base with simple, carved decoration and stretchers. c.1810.
This mahogany writing table has a three-quarter brass gallery and a central, pull-out insert. There are six drawers behind a lift-up flap, two drawers on either side, and two in the frieze, supported on slender, turned legs. c.1800.
LIBRARY TABLE
The rectangular top of this rosewood library table is inlaid with a Greek-key border in satinwood and ebony. The frieze has a central pierced ormolu palmette and two drawers. The bowed legs are headed by gilt lion’s heads and
terminate in lion’s-paw feet, joined by a shaped stretcher. c.1810.

Bracket Clocks
The backplate continued to be engraved, usually with such fashionable motifs as foliate scrolls and flowering urns.
In France curvaceous, asymmetrical forms were Popular from the 1690s, typified by the waisted bracket clock with its inward-curving case and matching wall bracket. Extravagant inlay with exotic materials was typical until c.1750, as were tortoiseshell veneer and gilt mounts; ormolu, lacquer, and porcelain were all popular, with ornate asymmetrical scrolls, shells, and flowers. From c.7750 to c.1800 more restrained lines and rustic, sentimental, and Classical motifs prevailed. Dials on most early 18th-century examples have an enamelled centre, with enamel plaques for numerals this is called a 13-piece dial; from the mid-18th century clockmakers used a one-piece, white, enamelled dial.
Early bracket clocks
The invention of the pendulum in the mid-17th century Trade possible the production of spring-driven clocks with a short pendulum, designed to stand on furniture, shelves, or wall brackets. These clocks, often portable, are usually known in Britain as “bracket” clocks, although few few were actually made with matching brackets; they are also known as “mantel” or “table” clocks. The cases and dials of early 17th
and 18th-century examples largely follow those of contemporary longcases.THE 17TH CENTURY
The earliest bracket clocks, made from the 1660s mostly in England, have cases veneered with ebony, walnut, or olivewood, a pediment-shaped or domed top, a brass carrying handle, bun or block feet, and pierced wooden panels or frets at the sides and/or the front, which were backed with fabric so that the striking mechanism could be heard. Damaged delicate wooden frets were often later replaced by glass panes. Some examples have gilded or silver feet, pierced (known as “basket”) brass tops and frets, and tortoiseshell veneer. The square brass dials often feature an applied, silvered chapter ring, spandrels in the form of winged cherubs, and blued-steel hands. Most 17th-century (and 18th-century) bracket clocks are of eight-day duration, strike the hours, and have a verge escapement; some were converted to the more accurate anchor escapement in the 19th century. Backplates were often engraved with Dutch-inspired tulips and leaves.
French 17th-century bracket clocks are usually more ornate than their English counterparts. One of the earliest forms was the pendule religieuse or Louis XIII clock, with tortoiseshell inlaid with silver and brass, gilt finials, and often gilt acanthus leaf swags or scroll mounts. From the 1690s French examples featured white enamel plaques for each numeral on the dial, on a velvet ground. Dutch clocks also featured velvet-covered dial plates, but their cases — typically in ebony — are plainer.
THE 18TH CENTURY
Bracket cases were usually veneered with walnut or ebonized until c.1730, and veneered with mahogany thereafter. Arched brass dials were introduced c.1715, with calendar work or strike/silent dials in the arch,
and an applied, silvered chapter ring. Some 18th-century examples have quarter-hour as well as hour striking and often a repeat mechanism, operated by a cord.
• CASE designs are similar to contemporary furniture and longcase clocks; British clocks tend to have wooden cases; French cases use a variety of materials
• MOVENIENT early bracket clocks have verge escapements: these were sometimes converted to anchor escapements an d if so the apron over the pendulum rod may be missing or the pendulum bob
will be disc-shaped instead of conical; some clocks were reconverted back to verge, often with a new apron in a style different from the rest of the clock
• ALTERATIONS finials and feet arc often missing or replaced in a different style; delicate wooden frets may have been replaced by glass
• COLLECTING clocks with a matching bracket are fairly rare and so especially collectable; original escapements are desirable; early clocks are highly sought after
Later bracket clocks
Although the longcase clock went into decline in the early 19th century, the bracket clock remained popular. The majority of 19th-century European bracket clocks are typified by elaborate case design in a variety of styles. The clock industry expanded in the USA, and from the 1840s mass-produced, inexpensive American bracket clocks, or “shelf” clocks, were imported into Europe, contributing to increased competition but ultimately to a decline in the European industry, especially in Britain.
REGENCY BRACKET CLOCKS
From the 1790s to the 1820s British bracket clocks were produced in diverse styles, from the satinwood-veneered “balloon” case, similar to the French waisted style, to the chamfer-top case. The chamfer-top style has a flattened pediment top, influenced by the contemporary Greek Revival style in architecture, and is crowned by a cast and gilt finial. Cases were usually veneered in mahogany or rosewood or ebonized, often with brass strip inlay in delicate scrolling designs. From the end of the 18th century bracket clocks were usually kept in one position rather than transported around: for this reason they often no longer had carrying handles at the top, although most chamfer-top clocks have ornamental brass ring handles on the sides, often held by lion masks.
The large, round, convex dials are among the easiest of faces to read: made of silvered brass, painted iron, or white-enamelled copper, they are usually very plain except for the maker’s signature. The simple brass or blued-steel hands are typically pierced or feature ornamental spade or heart tips. The movement is spring-driven with an anchor escapement.
VICTORIAN BRACKET CLOCKS
By the mid-19th century novelty of case design was all-important. The numerous revival styles, especially the Gothic Revival, were particularly influential. Gothic Revival clocks, popular between the 1830s and 1850s, have the same basic form as Regency clocks, but the dial plate is in the shape of a pointed arch, the fretted side panels imitate Gothic tracery, and cluster columns, copied from medieval architecture, ornament the corners. In contrast to the simpler Regency forms Victorian clocks tended to be elaborately decorated with heavy carving and mounts. Some featured complex striking mechanisms, with chimes on bells, and gongs on the quarter hour. Substantial three-train chiming “director’s” or “boardroom” clocks arc typical of the high Victorian period.
Dials were made in a wide range of materials, including plain or silvered brass and painted iron; the use of Arabic numerals was common from c.1870.
It is unusual to find a Regency bracket clock with its original
matching bracket. Many chamfer-top clocks of this type were made in mahogany or rosewood, but this example has an ebonized wood case. Brass strip inlay, bun feet, pineapple finials, and large, round, white-painted dials are typical of early 19th-century British bracket clocks. (c. 1820, ht excluding bracket 4Bcmll9in; value H)
of the retailer, although the best makers also sold their own clocks. The British clockmaking industry gradually declined from the 1840s owing to growing imports of mass-produced American and German clocks, but fine bracket clocks were made in Britain until World War I.
AMERICAN SHELF CLOCKS
Large-scale production of clocks first began in the early 19th century. Although many were exported to Europe, most surviving examples are found in the USA, where they are popular with collectors. Connecticut-based Eli Terry ( 1772-18-52) was the first to produce inexpensive movements, mostly of wood, using slick production methods and standard parts. In the 1830s Chauncey Jerome (1793-1868) invented 30-hour duration movements from rolled brass, which were both easier to make and more reliable than wood.
Although less expensive materials were used for American cases than European ones, designs were just as varied. Most carcasses were softwood veneered with mahogany, with a maker’s label on the interior, and thin, sheet-metal or wooden dials painted white. Clocks were simply designed to meet functional domestic demands, and used little brass so as to keep costs down. Notable designs were the “pillar and scroll” clock (until c.1830), with elegant side pillars, a scrolled pediment with finials, and simple, scalloped feet and skirt; the “three deck” design, with the case divided into three and decorated with half columns at the sides; the “acorn” style, with a wide, curving trunk; and the “steeple” clock, with a pointed gable and pinnacled side pillars. Most clocks are embellished on the front door with verre eglomise (reverse-painted glass) panels. At the end of the 19th century many American makers copied French marble mantel clocks, using imitation marble of enamelled iron or painted wood; some cases were of papier-mache inset with mother-of-pearl and painted with floral designs.
Regency bracket clocks
• HANDLES many examples have brass side handles, commonly with lion mask or cornucopia mounts
• CASES a variety of styles was produced but most were made of mahogany or rosewood with ball or bracket feet; the best examples have brass strip inlay in scrolling or floral designs
• DIALS most arc round and convex, and of silvered brass, white-painted iron, or enamelled copper; hands, plain or pierced, arc of simple, elegant design
Victorian bracket clocks
• CASES designs are varied, since originality of case was sometimes considered more important than the movement or any mechanical refinements; cases for chiming clocks were elaborate and heavily carved
• DIALS Arabic numerals were popular from c.1870; any name is often that of the retailer rather than the maker
American shelf clocks
• CASES most are softwood, veneered with mahogany; styles are varied but the majority of cases arc decorated on the front with verre eglomise panels
• DIALS these are usually of wood or metal, painted white; dials were not usually signed – instead a label with the maker’s name was usually pasted to the case
• MOVEMENTS early clocks have wooden movements with steel pivots; thin rolled brass was used from 1830s
FRENCH BRACKET AND MANTEL CLOCKS
The late 18th to early 19th century was a great period for French clockmaking, and a tremendous range of clocks was produced, some of them highly sophisticated. The work of the casemaker was as important as – and sometimes more important than – the complexity of the movement: cases are typically made of marble or bronze, embellished with rich gilt-bronze (ormolu) mounts, and generally more ornate than those on British examples. Most such clocks were made in Paris and reflect the influence of the Neo-classical style; ornamental motifs include Classical urns, vases, palmettos, festoons, and swags. One notable design – intended to illustrate the technical sophistication of the clock – is the lyre clock, which features a central gridiron pendulum with metal rods like the strings of a lyre. The multiple rods that form the gridiron pendulum expand and contract at different rates and in varying directions with changes in temperature, ensuring that the length of the pendulum remains constant and the clock highly accurate.
Most late 18th-century French mantel clocks feature round, convex dials, usually enamelled in white with black numerals. A few rare and highly collectable clocks produced in the 1790s have Revolutionary dials: in 1793 the Revolutionary government decreed that clocks and watches should show decimal time, with ten hours in a day and one hundred minutes for each hour. This system was, however, very short-lived.
Classical influences continued into the Empire period, but case designs became ever more ornamental and elaborate. Some were miniature replicas of the furnishings of the period, with figures in Grecian dress stated at tables or with musical instruments.
As industrial production was encouraged by the French government, mechanisms were increasingly standardized – most were fitted with an anchor escapement.
A huge variety of clocks was made in the mid- to late 19th century. A distinctive French design of the second half of the 19th century was the mass-produced, black marble mantel clock, assembled from pre-shaped marble or marble-faced cement. Polished black slate was often used for facings to reduce costs. Only the better-quality pieces, embellished with bronze relief decoration or such mechanical refinements as a perpetual calendar or moon phase dials, are of interest to collectors today. Other designs included the four-glass clock (from c.1850), featuring four panes of glass, and 18th-century revival styles, most of which were produced in gilt metal in the later 19th century. Most 19th-century examples arc of eight-day duration. After c.1870 many cheaper versions of ormolu clocks were made of inferior gilt speller.
• CASES most have ornate cases made of bronze or marble, decorated with rich ormolu mounts; mass-produced marble- or black-slate-faced mantel clocks were common from the late 19th century and are generally inexpensive
• DIALS most arc round and convex, with ormolu surrounds; gilt-metal hands were used c.1800;
later examples have blued-steel hands
• COLLECTING some clocks were produced with matching pairs of candelabra or vases, designed to stand either side of the clock on the mantelpiece; a complete set is desirable and enhances value

Early chairs
Before the 16th century rooms were sparsely furnished, and the range of furniture was limited. Chairs were scarce and, like stools, were viewed as symbols of authority. It was not until the 16th century that more comfortable chairs were made. At this time the major artistic impetus spread northward from Italy, and chairs were made in quantity only in southern Europe. By the I7th century, as lifestyles became more settled, there was a greater demand for comfort in seat furniture.

A Turner’s or “thrown” chair
s of this type were produced in Britain from the 16th century, and
still made in provincial areas into the 19th century. “Throwing” was early term for turning. These chairs were often made from ash, which strong and ideal for turning, although susceptible to woodworm. late 17th century; ht Iml3ft3in; value H)
SOUTHERN EUROPE
The earliest prototype was the 16th-century Italian X-frame folding chair, usually in walnut, Inch was adopted in northern Europe from the end of the century. Spanish examples exist that are inlaid with ivory and metals in stellar and geometric designs in the Moorish fashion.
Armchairs of the 16th and 17th centuries were refined versions of the carved chaise caquetoire (gossiping chair) which, with its solid, carved back and trapezoidal seat, was not very comfortable. As revealed by the engravings of the Flemish designer Hans Vredeman de Vries (1526-(.1604) in his Differents Pourtraicts de Menuiserie ((.1585), the earliest-surviving traditional easy chairs were executed principally in Tuscany, Spain, Portugal, and The Netherlands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Known as the sillon De fraileros (”monk’s chair”) in Spain, this type of chair was usually of walnut, with scrolled and acanthus-carved stiles. The upper section Was supported by plain legs joined by waved stretchers, and the chair was upholstered with
intricately tooled and embossed leather stretched by ornamental heavy brass nails. Examples from The Netherlands often have lion finials surmounting the stiles.
NORTHERN EUROPE
Turning on a foot-operated lathe (which revolved the legs while the wood was cut to the required shape) became an increasingly popular decorative technique in northern Europe, and by the early 17th century most legs were turned. This form of decoration remained fashionable until the end of the century. Designs became increasingly intricate at this time, culminating in the “barley-sugar” (spiral) twist.
Peculiar to the 17th century is the oak joined chair with arms, often called a wainscot chair in Britain. Similar designs were made in many countries throughout northern Europe, and examples are still found in some numbers. This type of chair commonly has a scroll-carved toprail, sometimes inscribed with initials or a date. Its characteristic feature is a panel back, often symmetrically carved with stylized
leaves, lozenges, roundels, and lunettes. The seat
is solid, but would originally have had a squab cushion, and the front supports are ring-turned, with the legs joined by stretchers. Chairs of this type were made until the end of the 17th century and represent the final stage of the age of the joiner, as this period is often called. Designs and techniques changed considerably after this time, but in many provincial areas the traditional methods of construction continued to be used.

•    woods invariably indigenous – walnut in southern Europe and oak in northern Europe; rosewood was used to a limited extent during the 17th century in Portugal
•    DAMAGE examples that pre-date 1600 are extremely rare, and 17th-century examples should be examined closely for repairs; age, wear, and tear will have taken their toll – the legs and the lower part of the back are particularly vulnerable
•    DECORATION painted decoration, upholstery, leather, and caning have often been changed; if the originals remain, they increase the value
•    COPIES AND FAKES most 17th-century chairs are stylistically of a very simple form, the same designs being produced over a long period, making them difficult to date; turners’ chairs arc popular with collectors and are often faked – copies are difficult to detect as they may be quite old themselves, and tend to be in the same woods as the originals (ash or oak, not walnut), with good-quality carving; the colour of the wood on all unpolished surfaces should be closely examined, as should the overall patina