Posts Tagged ‘Carpets’

Antique 19th Century Spanish and Portuguise Furniture.
ON THE IBERIAN PENINSULA, styles from
countries that had close relationships with Spain and Portugal, in particular, Morocco, were fused with a dominant French aesthetic. This resulted in
distinctive, solid furniture peppered with lighter touches.
SPANISH FUSION
“Isabellino” furniture was the Spanish interpretation of the French Second Empire style. Richly decorated with contrasting colours, it was more
exuberant than its French counterpart, and its symmetry allies it more closely with the Baroque than with the Rococo revival that swept across the rest of
Europe. Pieces made for the court of Isabella 11 (1833-68) were the most sumptuous of all and set the agenda for the aspiring merchant classes.
The use of mother-of-pearl inlays, frequently in geometric patterns, was very widespread. Other fashionable decorative elements included mounts of bronze or gilded wood, and painted decoration applied directly to the timber. Classical motifs, including carved putti and acanthus leaves, were also commonly used.
Openwork carving often made use of themes drawn from Morocco, Spain’s closest neighbour to the south, and one that has lent a distinctive
Islamic twist to the Spanish decorative arts for centuries. Moorish forms and decoration, such as woven upholstery and turned spindles, were widespread throughout Spain during this period. In fact, Moroccan influence was by now so well established that it broadened to include elements from other Islamic cultures.
Isabella It’s bedroom at the Palacio Real, Aranjuez The solidity of the dark wood furniture and fittings is offset by the sumptuous gilded carving that adorns the bed.
SPANISH MOORISH DRESSING TABLE
This walnut and ebony dressing table is inlaid with intarsia. The cabinet is surmounted by an arched mirror, at the base of which are two small drawers. A frieze drawer sits above a pair of panelled doors, which enclose a fitted interior. The case stands on block feet with casters. Mid 19th century.
SPANISH CABINET
The parquetry top of this tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, and walnut cabinet has projecting corners. The case has seven drawers, flanked by free-standing columns, and arranged around a central door and two drawers below. The Moorish influence is apparent in the Arab-style
design. Mid 19th century.
PORTUGUESE COMMODE
This is one of a pair of carved Rosewood petite commodes. The exaggerated waisted shape is a very common Portuguese form during this period. The ball-and-claw feet on cabriole legs are taken from mid 18th-century English designs. Late 19th century.
PORTUGUESE CENTRE TABLEPORTUGUESE SIDE TABLE
This centre table is made of rosewood and is in the style of those popular in the late 17th century. The rectangular table top has brass mounts at the corners and the frieze is fitted with drawers and dummy drawers. It stands on bulbous, twist-carved legs joined by twisted stretchers. c.1880.
This side table is made of stained walnut. Beneath the plain top is a single frieze drawer. The overall form, with its H-stretcher and central uprights, is 17th-century French, but the style of carving gives it a Portuguese provenance.
Cyrillic script betrays the central Asian provenance of some Moorish furniture constructed in Spain at this time. Carpets used as upholstery were sourced from the Tekke of Turkestan, for example. Heavy silver adornments were another decorative element borrowed From this part of the world.
The drawing-room suite, usually comprising a sofa and a pair of armchairs, became extremely popular in Spanish homes during this period. The occasional table continued to enjoy the popularity it had won in the earlier “Fernandino” period. Around 1870, Ater a period of civil war that Followed the end of Isabellas reign, designers
began to seek inspiration in traditional Spanish furniture from the 16th and 17th centuries.
PORTUGUESE ASSIMILATIONS The Portuguese had suffered greatly Lit the hands of Napoleon’s Forces but had been impressed by a system of government that freed them from the yoke of a repressive monarchy. Rebellion and civil war plagued the reigns of Maria 11, Pedro V, and Luis 1, the rulers of Portugal during the mid 19th century.
French influence had declined after liberation From Napoleon, and designers began to follow the work
of British cabinet-makers more closely. As a result, features such as the cabriole leg and paw foot became widespread in Portuguese furniture. Another important outside influence came from Germany. The Portuguese embraced the Fading Biedermeier style through Maria 11, who had a number of German consorts.
Towards the end of the century, Spain began to embrace styles based on the more distant past of their own peoples, while Portugal embarked on an
enduring affair with designs from the Joao V period (1706-50). Rosewood continued to be the favoured wood because of Portugal’s colonial interests.
LATIN AMERICAN NEOCLASSICISM The thriving Latin colonies in Central and South America had never been exposed to the French Empire style that had pervaded Europe and from which the bulk of European mid 19th-century furniture had developed. The widespread diaspora of patterns originally drawn by 18th-century masters, such as Chippendale and Hepplewhite, did reach these distant western outposts and were the basis for a Latin American Neoclassical revival. Latin American furniture in the mid 19th century was, therefore, far closer to British forms than that produced on the Iberian mainland.

Antique Carpets and Rugs. Turkestan.

Western Turkestan is a loosely defined area bordered by Iran and the Caspian Sea to the West, Afghanistan to the South, and China to the East. The region is inhabited by the Turkomans (Turkic peoples), whose tribal structure has historically always been complex and shifting. Mane of the tribal groups under this heading changed over the years as alliances were formed, broken, and re-formed. The main tribal subdivisions within this group are the Tekke, the Yomut, the Salor, the Ersari, the Beshir, the Saryk, and the Belouch. Their weaving tradition dates back centuries, but most examples found today can be confidently dated only to the 18th century or later. Western Turkestan came under the control of the Russian empire in the late I 9th century, and later of the Soviet Union. Russian domination gradually eroded the tribal structures and consequently tribal weavings became more stereotyped and commercialized, and less highly collectable.
TURKOMAN WEAVINGS
Turkoman weavings, as a group, are easy to recognize, but to identify the exact tribal subdivision can prove difficult. Based on nomadic traditions, their woven products included rugs and functional artifacts of daily life such as torba (long, narrow bags), juval (deeper bags), and trappings. Large carpets (more than 3.5m/ 12ft long) are seldom seen. Most pieces have a limited colour scheme – usually Turkoman weavings have the same ground and border colour. The background colour is usually red in all its shades, ranging from a very bright terracotta through burgundy to brown or aubergine. The designs, in dark brown, white, and blue, with occasional yellow, crimson, and green, are abstract and geometric in form, following the typical nomadic custom, and are woven from memory with patterns passed down through the generations. Wool is used for foundation and pile.
Prior to any commercialization the Turkomans used their weavings to decorate their circular tents, known as 6y; the motifs they wove identified the tribe. As in certain Ottoman designs, the primary motif is the gul, a geometric, highly stylized floral motif, and its shape
is (or was originally) the distinctive signature of the tribe – its symbol or emblem. The gul is used in repeated parallel rows in the main field design, which is framed by a complementary border. Difficulties of exact tribal attribution can arise, as gul motifs were copied from neighbouring tribes, or, during times of conflict, motifs were stolen and adapted by the victorious group.
By the end of the 19th century, commercialization along with increasing demand from Western markets led to the emergence of a more stereotyped style. The Tekke gul proved especially popular, and as a result other tribal groups abandoned their own gul to use that of the Tekke instead. By the end of the 19th century, although commercial production was a success, the individual weaving traditions of the tribes had virtually died out.
THE TRIBES
The Tekke were the most powerful tribe in western Turkestan during the 19th century until they were defeated in 1881 by the Russian army. They were prolific weavers, their products ranging from main carpets to functional functional pieces. Their carpets are among the most copied in Pakistan and Afghanistan today. Tekke carpets are often incorrectly called “Bokhara” carpets, while the famous Tekke gul is sometimes incorrectly described as the “elephant’s foot” gul after its shape. Tekke carpets often display a characteristic grid of black horizontal and vertical lines joining the guls. Weavings made prior to the end of the 19th century are extremely collectable and of high quality.
The Yomut were also prolific weavers. It is sometimes difficult to identify a Yomut piece, since the tribe used a great variety of designs, but various shades of brown and aubergine for the grounds, and bright reds, yellows, Hue, and ivory for pattern details arc typical. Yomut guls often have hooked edges and may be arranged in diagonals. Like the Tekke, the Yomut are famous for pertain artifacts, such as asmalyk (came] trappings).
The Salor, a notorious warring tribe, were heavily defeated by the Persians in 1831, and later by the Tckke in a land struggle in 1859. The tribe then effectively disintegrated and members were swallowed into larger groups such as the Ersari. Their large, rounded gul containing a trefoil motif (known as a or “flower”, gul) was subsequently adopted by the Tekke and the Saryk, but was used by these tribes in greater density, giving the pattern an overcrowded appearance.
In contrast to the finely woven work of the neighbouring Tekke and Yomut, the weaving of the Ersari is crude and loose. The Ersari are closely associated with the Beshir, and both were prolific weaving groups until the late 19th century. A typical Ersari design uses the gulli gul repeated in tightly packed rows. Borders of stepped medallions arc also common. Ersari carpets are often labelled as Afghan, mainly because the Turkoman plains of northern Afghanistan formed part of the tribe’s territory. Their designs, particularly the large gul format, were also imitated by later Afghan mass production.
The Saryk were one of the least prolific weaving groups in Turkestan: pieces identifiable to them arc rare, and sought after by collectors. Unusually for Turkoman work, Saryk carpets use the Turkish (symmetrical) knot. They also use several different guls, similar to those of the Tekke and the Salor. Most typical is a large octagonal old with 24 facets, often containing cross-shaped motifs; large and small guls may alternate in rows.
The Belouch (now the Baluchi) inhabit an isolated region straddling the Afghan-Iranian border. Their work is distinctive and original, making use of wonderfully soft natural camel wool. Prayer-rugs are one of their most highly regarded formats, while the tree — often a stylized tree of life — is one of their most typical motifs.
MAIN TRIBES the Tekke, the Yomut, the Salor, the Ersari, the Beshir, the Saryk, and the Belouch
• TYPES rugs, carpets, and artifacts such as bags and animal trappingsWEAVE
• wool pile on its wool foundation is typical
• COLORS the field is usually characterized by extremely distinctive shades of red and brown; Turkoman weavings typically have the same colour around and border; decorative motifs are atypically in dark blue or ivory
• DESIGNS these are almost exclusively geometric in form and are based upon motifs of flora and fauna; repeat designs of the gul or flower-head arc usually featured in the field
• COLLECTING examples are subdivided into tribal groups and arc usually identified by the shape and style of the primary gul motif; pieces made before 1900 are sought after by collectors; later pieces lack the individuality and subtlety of colour of early pieces and tend to be more coarsely woven
• BEWARE pieces from western Turkestan are often erroneously classified as “Bokhara” weavings after the exporting town in the region; however, no rugs were ever made in Bokhara; collectors should beware that designs are often copied in Pakistan using considerably inferior colours and materials to the originals

Antique Rugs and Carpets. Caucasus.

The mountainous region between the Black and Caspian seas is inhabited by many ethnic groups, whose weaving traditions go back centuries. However, very little is known of the type of carpet produced here prior to the mid-17th century, although what emerges from this time is a clearly identifiable group of carpets based on a nomadic and semi-nomadic style of production. The designs incorporate both bold and finely drawn geometric motifs in bright, vivid, contrasting colours, and characteristically depict stylized animal and floral forms. These strong, geometric, individual renderings are highly prized by collectors, particularly examples that date from before c.1900. Later examples lack spontaneity, and are inclined to appear dull and stereotyped by comparison.
EARLY CAUCASIAN WEAVINGS
The oldest identifiable group of Caucasian carpets is the so-called “Kuba dragon” carpets, which appear to date from about the mid-17th century. The name “Kuba” is likely to be spurious, as it is now generally thought that these carpets were woven in the Karabagh district of the southern Caucasus and the Shirvan district of the eastern Caucasus. The dragon rugs represent a bold and powerful provincial rendering of Persian animal and vase carpet designs from, the towns of Tabriz, Kashan, and Kirman during the Safavid period (1501-1732). They incorporate stylized dragons and other motifs such as cloudbands, cranes, and phoenixes, which are associated with Chinese art and which also appear, naturalistically drawn, in Persian Safavid town production.
The overall design format with an endless repeat of animal and floral forms without a lattice arrangement also stems from the established format adopted by the Safavid court style. The degree of stylization of the drawing varies from carpet to carpet, with some carpets displaying motifs whose origins are barely identifiable. The production of large carpets, taking a characteristically long, narrow form and decorated with designs derived from classic production, virtually ceases by the mid-18th century.
LATER NORTH- AND EAST-CAUCASIAN WEAVINGS
Most Caucasian rugs date from the 19th century and were made in village workshops by weavers who combined a nomadic tradition, often based on an earlier Anatolian work, with formal designs based on the earlier dragon carpets or directly on Persian town influences. Northern and eastern Caucasian rugs are mostly on a cotton foundation or a combination of wool and cotton. The design repertory is endless, but there are certain consistent features in the group. The pile is in most cases tightly woven and closely wrapped, which allows for greater crispness and definition of design. The colours are jewel-like and vibrant. Kuba, Shirvan, and Dagestan are the three main districts where technically fine Caucasian rugs are produced. Within each district, particular towns are associated with carpet production: Perebedil, Chi Chi, and Seichur in Kuba, and Marasali and Akstafa in Shirvan are the best known. Dagestan rugs are named after the district.
Rugs from the village of Seichur are particularly distinctive; mainly in runner format, they usually feature a repeating “St Andrew’s cross” medallion in a typically formal arrangement, as seen in such earlier classic pieces as the “Holbein” rugs. The remaining field is often crammed with stylized flowering branches. White is rare as a background colour, with shades of blue and red being much more usual. Dark blue is particularly common in northern and eastern Caucasian rugs; small details are frequently picked out in brighter colours, and contrast strongly against the dark background. Visually appealing examples will, additionally, incorporate a background border colour that contrasts with the field colour. Prayer-rugs are typically woven with the mihrab, or prayer niche, consistently geometric in shape and very easily identifiable.
The north-easterly region of Dagestan is renowned for its well-made prayer-rugs with white or ivory grounds. The light ground is filled in with diagonal rows of multicoloured, stylized plants in a serrated lattice. Borders are typically in a contrasting colour to the ground.
LATER SOUTH- AND WEST-CAUCASIAN WEAVINGS
Bold and open designs epitomize rugs from the Karabagh and Kazak districts in the southern and western Caucasus, respectively. In contrast to that of rugs from the North and East, the wool pile is long and usually much more loosely woven, resulting in bolder, less detailed motifs. Designs are based upon earlier classic forms, both Persian and Anatolian. Good examples exhibit a fine balance between scale and colour contrast in the pattern details. Carpets are seldom produced, mainly owing to
the predominantly village-oriented nature of production, but also because the bold designs lend themselves to a smaller, rug-sized scale, as well as to runner formats. Bold prayer-rug designs are also found.
In establishing the quality of rugs from this area, it is important to look for bright, vibrant colours that are not brash or conflicting. Also look for lustrous wool in the pile and a good balance of design. Fineness of weave is not usually a factor in determining the quality of rugs from this region. Pieces made after 1880 may display harsh chemical dyes, with bright shades of orange and purple very noticeable. These were the first chemical dyes produced, c.1870, and do not harmonize with more traditional, natural colours. Shades of brown and charcoal are often used – these are prone to natural corrosion or oxidation due to the iron in the dyestuff. • MAN AREAS OF PRODUCTION the Kuba, Shirvan, Dagestan, Karabagh, and Kazak districts
• WEAVE mostly wool on a wool foundation although some finer pieces are produced on a cotton foundation
• SCALE most pieces are of rug size although runners and practical artifacts were also produced
• COLOURS jewel-like colours are characteristic for the field, especially red, blue, white, and sometimes yellow; avoid pieces in shades of orange as well as any examples with colour run; particularly beware of red bleeding into white
• DESIGNS these are almost always geometric; prayer-rugs arc typical of the area
• MOTIFS floral and animal motifs are typical
• COLLECTING pieces are usually identifiable by district or by village; rugs produced before 1900 are highly sought after by collectors; later examples tend to feature poor colour combinations and usually lack the individuality of earlier pieces; examples are copied in Turkey but colours arc likely to be pastel-based

Antique Turkish Carpets before 1700

The practice of weaving carpets may have been brought to Anatolia by the Seljuks, a Turkic people from Central Asia who ruled Anatolia from 1077 to 1307. Eight fragmented 13th-century Seljuk carpets were found in the Aladdin Mosque, Konya, in 1905. Some are enormous (6m/nearly 20ft long), several are decorated with geometric floral designs based on Chinese silk brocades, and all have wide borders of stylized Kufic script. These carpets are now in the Turkish and Islamic Museum in Istanbul. Of extraordinary graphic power and grandeur, they reflect a highly developed and sophisticated awareness of weaving as an art form.
THE OTTOMANS
The Ottomans, also originally Turks from Central Asia, established themselves in Turkey in the late 13th century. They took Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453 and ruled until 1922. At the height of its power the Ottoman Empire extended from Egypt to Hungary.
Most surviving court weavings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Early carpets show the geometric gul medallion) patterns that derive from the Central Asian tradition. The “Memling” gul (named after the 1 5th German painter Hans Memling, who depicted similar carpets in his work) consists of an octagon enclosing a stepped hooked medallion. Other carpets use the “Holbein” pattern (named after Hans Holbein the Younger), typically comprising rows of octagonal medallions framed by arabesques, interspersed with smaller lozenges. The distinctive “Lotto” design (after Lorenzo Lotto) is a development of the Chinese brocade designs of the Seljuk carpets; it features stylized yellow fines, leaves, and palmettes on a red ground.
Cairo, colonized by the Ottomans in 1517, had under the previous Mamluk rule (1250-1517) created carpets with dense, all-over geometric designs, usually in green, crimson, and white with a little yellow. Weavers from Cairo may have initially been responsible for the group of finely woven mid-16th-century rugs and carpets that show the development of the true Ottoman court style and are very different from the earlier geometric designs. Motifs include the cintamani (three balls above a pair of wavy lines), which became one of the most popular devices in Ottoman art (found in tiles, textiles, carpets, and metalwork). Other decoration includes cloudbands and lotus palmettes (from Chinese art), large leaves, and the four favourite Ottoman flowers: carnations, tulips, hyacinths, and roses. Many of these motifs appear stylized in 18th- and 19th-century Turkish village rugs.
A “Star” carpet made in Ushak
The star shape of the main medallion originated in China and is also found in 15th- and 16th-century Persian carpets. The repeat pattern, with its incomplete outer medallions, was intended to suggest infinity. (c.1550-1600; I. 1.8m/5ft 11 in; value Q)
In the late 16th and 17th centuries other designs were developed, including the large “medallion” and “star” carpets of Ushak in western Anatolia. Both these types show an endless repeating design cut by borders. The medallion layout, first used in bindings of the Koran, may have been borrowed from the contemporary Persian carpets of Tabriz (Tabriz artists were employed by the Ottoman court). The ground of the medallion carpets, which is of red vines and palmettes on blue, or vice versa, again recalls Chinese textiles. Other motifs are Persian-influenced, taking the form of sprays of flowers and arabesque scrolls. There are a number of border designs, many used interchangeably on the various carpets, including Kufic, cloudbands, palmettes with flower sprays, and floral cartouches. Turkish carpets were highly prized in the West. Many Tudor (1485-1603) portraits depict their subjects standing proudly on their Turkish carpets. European carpets are knotted with the Turkish, or symmetrical, knot in imitation of these early imports. Most Turkish and many Caucasian rugs of the 18th and 19th centuries have designs developed from the Ottoman production of the 15th-17th centuries.
T “Transylvanian” rug made in Ushak
Large quantities of these Turkish rugs were exported to Europe. In Transylvania many were used to decorate Protestant churches in the 17th and 18th centuries -hence their name. This example features stylized mosque lamps.

Antique Turkish Carpets after 1700

The Ottoman tradition of weaving established between the 15th and 17th centuries formed the inspiration for rug production in Turkey in the 19th century. What emerged was the creation of far more commercial rugs and carpets to appeal to a wider, Western audience — products that were still traditional in approach, but more accessible. This commercialization affected both village rug production and town and city workshop production, with designs evolving or being adapted from the earlier classic traditions.
VILLAGE AND NOMADIC PRODUCTION
Rugs woven in villages throughout Turkey share similar design formats, construction, and traditional influences with their Persian and Caucasian neighbours to the East and North, and with those from Central Asia further
East. Village products incorporate essentially geometric design elements, woven on woollen warps and wefts, and made with the Turkish knot. Inspiration is drawn from earlier classic renditions; the guls (medallions) used are frequently similar to guls seen in Turkoman carpets from Central Asia, while the influence of the early “Holbein” rugs is often evident in the shape of the medallions. Designs that were popular in the 18th and 19th centuries are reproduced today in similar formats and contemporary shades, although as is typical throughout the industry, products made after c.1900 lack the individuality and vibrancy of the earlier pieces.
Very little of the Turkish rug production is actually nomadic; most is cooperative and village-based. The Yuruk and the Kurds are two nomadic peoples who weave on their migrations. Rugs from these two groups share similarities with Caucasian Kazak and Karabagh rugs, with their bold, geometric patterns and strong palette. The pile is usually even deeper than in the Caucasian carpets. One of the major differences between the Caucasian and the Turkish village and nomad rugs is the lack of zoomorphic and human forms in the Turkish pieces: the design elements are almost exclusively floral-based.
TOWN PRODUCTION
Like Persian town production, Turkish town rugs and carpets have formal curvilinear designs, and in some centres are woven from cartoons (scale drawings); most production is on cotton or sometimes silk foundations, although town rugs and carpets in Turkey are also woven on woollen foundations. In western Turkey the town of Ghiordes (the name used to describe the Turkish, or symmetrical, knot) was a main weaving centre from the 17th to the early 20th century. Although on a wool foundation, the pile of Turkish town rugs and carpets is finely woven on red- or pink-dyed warps, and a cotton weft is used. Rugs from Ghiordes are often of prayer-rug form; others recall earlier design traditions. Zigzags, hexagonal medallions, and stylized floral motifs are typical. This type of rug design was popular in the 19th century.
Prayer-rugs are widespread in Turkish rug production. Ladik in central Anatolia is famous for those made in the 18th and early 19th centuries, depicting a plain mihrab (prayer niche) supported by a detailed border, presenting a striking image. These rugs also demonstrate the use of design elements adapted from older rugs. The town of Konya, close to Ladik, is also a centre for the production of prayer-rugs. Alternative prayer-rug formats included the use of a double mihrab — again a feature associated with similar rug production from the classic era. Konya produces bold geometric-design rugs very similar in character and colour to Kazak rugs from the Caucasus. Both Ladik and Konya rugs are highly sought after by collectors, due to their powerful and distinctive images.
MASTERPIECES OF TURKISH WEAVING
The town of Hereke, east of Istanbul, is famous for its extremely fine silk rugs with refined, elegant decoration. The finest silk rugs in the world are made there today. At the same time that Hereke started its production (late 19th century), workshops were established in Kum Kapi, the Armenian quarter of Istanbul. Exceptional, finely woven silk rugs were made there by Turkish Armenians who came from the weaving centres of Kayseri and Sivas; technically advanced in the art of rug-weaving, they produced rugs of a quality that had not been seen since the 17th century. They drew their inspiration from the Ottoman court style and the classic 16th-century Persian rugs of the Safavid period (1501-1732). Many of the products from these workshops are signed by the master weavers, with names that are now legendary: Zareh Penyamian, Hagop Kapoudjian, and the Tossounian family. These exquisite masterpieces are highly regarded and command high prices.
WESTERN INFLUENCE
In the late 19th century Western demand for decorative large-scale carpets increased, affecting both Persia and Turkey. Turkish carpet production during the 1890s responded to the new market, and Ushak in western Anatolia produced large, coarsely woven, decorative carpets for the European and American markets. These were often made to order by stores such as Liberty & Co. (est. 1875) in London, and carpets may still be found bearing their labels. Loosely woven on woollen foundations, many of these carpets were of indifferent quality and unattractive, the design most frequently produced being bright red with all-over bold green-andblue lozenges and palmettos: these are often referred to as “Turkey” carpets. However, some attractive products were made, generally based on Persian models of the same period.
• MAIN AREAS OF PRODUCTION Ghiordes, Ladik, Konya,
Hereke, Kum Kapi (Istanbul)
• WEAVE most town pieces are either cotton or silk on a wool foundation; less fine examples are woven in wool
• DESIGNS many patterns take their inspiration from classic prototypes and Persian models; nomadic and semi-nomadic rugs usually feature geometric designs
• COLOURS these vary enormously from bright, vibrant jewel colours to washed-out pastel shades – the latter especially typical of town production pieces; poor examples feature harsh bright colours; modern nomadic and semi-nomadic pieces are characterized by the use of soft pastel shades
• COLLECTING look out for harmonious colour combinations and well-balanced designs; fine silk rugs from Hereke and Kum Kapi are rare, exquisitely made, and usually extremely valuable; it is advisable to buy rare antique rugs only from reputable dealers – the most beautiful examples would have been made for export purposes so it is not usually advisable to travel to the country of production to find the best pieces

Oriental Persian Carpets.

Persian Carpets before 1800.

The origins of pile weaving are obscure, but that it is an ancient skill is proven by a hand-knotted rug found in Pazyryk, southern Siberia, dating from between the 3rd and 5th centuries BC. Fragments of piled weavings (3rd-6th centuries AD) have been found in Xinjiang (eastern Turkestan); others dating mainly from the 13th century have been uncovered at Fostat in Cairo.
By the 13th century rug-weaving was well established it Anatolia and by at least the 15th century pile carpets were mad, in Egypt. Persian carpets are mentioned in 10th-century Aral records, by Marco Polo in the 13th century, and by the 14th-century explorer Ibn Batuta. Paintings of the 14th an( 15th centuries depict weavings similar to early Turkish carpets.
SAFAVID WEAVING
The great trade artery, the Silk Route, ran from Beijing in the east, through eastern and western Turkestan, Persia (Iran), and Turkey, to Europe. Under Timurid rule (1370-1506) Persia established strong links with China, and motifs such as cloudbands, cranes, phoenixes, and dragons were introduced to the Timurid court artists via Chinese textiles and pottery.
The Safavids (1501-1732) conquered Persia in 1501. Tahmasp, the second shah, established royal workshops for weaving carpets and textiles in Kashan, Kirman, Isfahan (now Esfahan), and Tabriz, ushering in the classic age of Persian carpet-weaving. These cities grew into the four great centres of production.
The earliest carpets, from the late 15th to early 16th century, are associated with Tabriz in north-west Persia. They have a large medallion often shaped like a lotus flower with cusped lobes, edged in stylized clouds. cloudbands and arabesques fill the field. As this design developed, the medallion acquired pendants, and animals in combat appeared in the field. Countless variations on this theme are found in 19th- and 20th-century carpets.
The hunting motifs of a magnificent 16th-century silk carpet from the silk-weaving centre Kashan were much borrowed in the 19th and 20th centuries in Tehran, Kirman, Isfahan, and Kashan. The design was popular with mid-20th-century weavers in Qom. Small silk rugs woven in Kashan in the mid-16th century, with a medallion and spandrel design, gave rise to countless modern imitations, many woven in the same city between c.1900 and 1930. In the 17th century, the great Islamic cultural centre of Isfahan in central Persia, under Shah Abbas, produced carpets with all-over designs of vine
tendrils supporting huge palmettes, curled “sickle” or saz leaves (shaped like a scythe blade with a serrated edge), and bold borders. Such designs are often on a strong red ground.
Certain carpets believed to be from Kirman are known as “vase” carpets. Made from the mid-16th to the late 17th century, some pieces depict Chinese-style vases on a trelliswork of vines, palmettes, and leaves. These carpets have a double layer of cotton warps, and three shoots of weft, the middle one silk. All carpets with this unusual structure are called “vase” carpets, even where the vase pattern does not appear. This trellis, palmetto, and leaf pattern was widely copied in the late 19th and 20th centuries.
Many classical Persian carpets were exported to the West, and a great number can now be seen in museums. Wool carpets from Isfahan were popular, as were the silk Polonaise, or Polish, rugs originally thought to come from Poland, but in fact from 17th-century Isfahan. They are woven in bright green, blue, red, and ivory, with brocaded areas in silver or gilt metal (a thin strip of metal was wound around a white or yellow silk thread). Early 20th-century rugs from the Kum Kapi district of Istanbul were inspired by these rugs; modern silk and metal thread rugs from Hereke in Turkey are their distant cousins.
• MAIN CENTRES OF PRODUCTION Kashan, Kirman,
Tabriz, and Isfahan
• SCALE most examples are large carpets, although some small rugs were also produced
• WEAVE most are woven in wool or silk, sometimes with metal thread details; some are woven in silk on a silk and cotton foundation
• DESIGNS early Persian carpets were based on cartoons, many of which were drawn by court artists; the designs of these carpets form the basis of most later Persian weaving patterns
• MOTIFS these include cloudbands, hunting motifs, vegetation (palmettes, vines, lotus-flower-shaped designs, and leaves), cranes, phoenixes, and dragons

Persian Carpets after 1800.

The quality and quantity of Persian weaving declined greatly in the 18th and early 19th centuries compared to the fine traditions established in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, from the mid-19th century there was a revival of interest, mainly generated by a renewed Western fashion for Eastern products. Demand was accelerated by easier travel and trade links together with a new awareness which was to a large degree generated by British colonialism. Two distinct styles of carpet production emerged in Persia, both firmly based on earlier traditions: the city and town workshop style, and the tribal and village style. Associated with these were the more commercial carpets created to feed the new Western market.
TOWN AND CITY PRODUCTION
Certain towns and cities are synonymous with carpet weaving in Persia. Tabriz in the north-west, Mashad in the north-east, Isfahan (now Esfahan) and Kashan in central Persia, and Kirman in the south-east are of particular importance. Although there are regional
variations in the uses of colour and in the presentation of the subject-matter, there are several important characteristics in this group that identify the style.
Based on the designs of the earlier classic era (16th-to 17th-century Safavid weavings), the pattern details are essentially curvilinear in form, with particular emphasis on floral design elements. Flower-heads, palmettos (vertically split flowers), and associated vines and foliage are the predominant features, naturalistically drawn to create an image of a colourful garden. Variations on this theme may sometimes include people TRIBAL AND VILLAGE PRODUCTION
Tribal rugs are woven by the various nomadic groups during migrations with their flocks, and have been subject to few outside influences. The tribal tradition of rug-weaving is quite different from that of town manufacture: designs are woven from memory, with patterns passed down from generation to generation, or adapted from other products seen by the weavers on their travels; designs are therefore often highly original. The designs of tribal rugs are always geometric, and represent stylized versions of the more naturalistic drawing seen in town rugs. The geometric patterns are mainly determined by the use of the Turkish knot, which is suited to creating angular lines. Tribal products are woven with a wool pile on wool foundation; being a thick material, wool does not allow for such intricate detail as is possible on the cotton or silk foundations of products made in the towns.
Floral motifs abound and are often highly stylized. Animals, birds, and humans are also often depicted, although they are sometimes barely recognizable. Persian tribal rugs tend to be more densely decorated than their northerly Caucasian neighbours, whose designs are bolder and even more rigidly rectilinear.
The best-known Persian tribal groups are the
Kashgai, the Khamseh, and the Afshar, all of which
use wonderful, jewel-like colours – blues, reds, yellows, greens, and ivory – in all tones. Their work includes all-over designs and medallion formats, and they occasionally produce prayer-rugs. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the products of these three tribes, since they often borrow each other’s ideas.
Technical quality in tribal work can vary enormously, from extremely coarse to extremely fine depending on the experience or competence of the weaver. It is important to note that the value of a piece is not necessarily based on technical fineness, but may also depend on its visual appeal or its individuality. As well as rugs, artifacts such as bags and animal trappings are woven. Carpets are rarely seen, although in some villages around the main marketing towns settled tribespeople weave large-scale pieces.
WESTERN INFLUENCE
In 1882 Ziegler & Co., a British/Swiss firm exporting Persian goods to the West, set up carpet workshops in Sultanabad (now Arak) in north-west Persia. Traditional designs were adapted for the Western market, incorporating bold floral motifs linked by lattice vines and framed within wide borders. Such carpets are highly popular and valuable, although central-medallion carpets of this type are less sought after. A particular Western-led innovation was the employment of the human figure as the main, pictorial element of a design.
• MAIN CENTRES OF PRODUCTION Tabriz, Mashad,
Isfahan, Kashan, Kirman, Heriz, and Senneh
• MAIN TRIBES the Kashgai, the Khamseh, and the Afshar
• TYPES town and city production: mostly rugs and carpets; tribal and village production: smaller wares –rugs and artifacts such as bags and animal trappings are typical; carpets are rare
• WEAVES town and city rugs and carpets are generally finely woven with either wool on a cotton foundation or, sometimes, silk pile on a silk foundation; tribal and village designs are mostly woven in wool on wool
• COLOURS these vary enormously from the broad range of pastels and bright colours used in towns and cities to the bold, jewel-like colours typical of tribal production
• DESIGNS town and city pieces are based on cartoons; curvilinear designs, typically featuring floral motifs, are common; tribal and village rugs and carpets are woven from memory, so no two examples are exactly alike; design and colouring have often been governed by the export market – the use of the human figure as the principal design was mainly inspired by Western tastes
• COLLECTING avoid pieces in shades of orange and garish shades of red; tribal rugs made before 1900 are prized by collectors; modern 20th-century examples are likely to be well made and attractive but lack the individuality in colour and design of older 19th-century pieces; fine tribal weaves can be very valuable