Posts Tagged ‘cupboard’

METHODS OF DRAWER CONSTRUCTION
the door-opening. Fit the fillets carefully and glue and pin the front ones in position, making the neat mitre joints at the corners, as in Figs. 9 (d)
and (g). Fit the panel and fix it in place by means of further fillets pinned on the inside of the frame at the back, as also shown in Fig. 9 (g.)
DRAWERS FOR KITCHEN FITMENTS
Success in drawer-making depends primarily upon the accuracy of the drawer-opening in the carcase. If this is at fault, the drawer, however well made, will be difficult to fit and will not run smoothly. Check the opening to see that it is straight and square. If necessary, slight adjustments can be made with it bull-nose plane, or perhaps by moving the runners or kickers.
Dovetailed Drawer. Undoubtedly the best type of drawer is that shown in the first illustration of Fig. 1. It is the standard form used in all well-made furniture. The cut-away portions shown in Fig. 2 (a) give details of construction, but the reader is advised to make a careful
examination of a drawer from an existing piece of furniture. The sides are lap-dovetailed to the front and through-dovetailed to the back. The front is grooved to take the bottom, which is held in place at the sides by means of drawer slips, which also are grooved. The lower edge of the back is made level with the top of the groove, and the bottom can thus be pushed into the groove from the back, and is held in place by screws inserted from underneath into the back. The top edge of the back is
FIG. 1. 1 inished appearance of(above)
a dovetailed drawer► and (top right) a
rehmed th-awer; (bottom right) a
much simpler form of construction
suitable for small drawers.
made about I in. lower than the sides, so that there is no danger of its rubbing on the kickers.
Drawer fronts rarely need be thicker than I in., with sides and back of A in.; for small drawers these dimensions should be reduced.
Plane up the wood, making quite certain that the inside faces are quite flat and out of winding; lay them out in their relative positions as in Fig. 2 (b), and mark the inside bottom corners so that it is known where each piece will be finally fitted.
Commence by making the bottom edge of the drawer front quite true, and fit the bottom corner, X, as in Fig. 2 (c), by planing the end and testing it in the carcase. When this end is correct mark off the exact
length of the drawer front and fit the other bottom corner, Y, in the same way.
Plane the top edge of the drawer so that it will just fit the opening. The drawer front, when fitted, should only just enter the opening for about I in., as shown in Fig. 2 (d), the edges being very slightly tapered to allow this. Next saw and plane the back to length, so that it can be pushed into the opening to make a good, close fit. Plane the sides to ensure a tight fit when the drawer is pushed right back into the opening. Then saw and plane off the ends square to final length, allowing for at least 4-in. clearance at the back of the drawer inside the carcase.
Fig. 2 (e) gives details of the next stage of marking out. Using a gauge (preferably a cutting gauge, but a well-sharpened marking gauge will serve), set it to the distance D, which is the length of the lap of the dovetails. With this setting, gauge thetwo sides and both ends of the drawer front, as in Fig. 2 (e). Re-set the gauge to a shaving less than the thickhess of the drawer sides; gauge a line on the inside of the drawer front from each end, and also two corresponding lines oil the back, shown at S in Fig. 2 (e). Re-set the gauge to the thickness of the back, and gauge a line on the back end of both sides, as at B. Set the gauge to the distance of the top of the groove oil the front from the bottom edge, and gauge a line at the ends of the sides, as at G in Fig. 2 (e); this gives the final position of the lower edge of the back.
Mark out the dovetails on the ends of the side pieces and cut away the waste; the groove in the bottom must be covered by the bottom tail, for otherwise a gap would show at the ends of the drawer front. Cut the tails on the back end. Scribe the pins from the tails, and cut and fit the joints. Plough the groove on the front, allowing at least I in. below the bottom of the groove. Glue the joints and assemble the drawer; make sure that the joints are close, either by cramping or by tapping them together with a hammer, protecting the work from damage by means of a block of waste wood. Test the drawer to see that it is exactly square and out of winding; this is essential if the drawer is to fit the carcase properly. Allow the glue to set, and then clean up the drawer, planing down the sides until the drawer will slide in
FIG. 3. Stages in the preparation and
fitting of slips; (d) shows a stopfitled
to the bottom drawer rail.
smoothly ; finally plane the front to allow it to enter the drawer opening.
Beware of planing the drawer without first being quite certain where it is tight ; tight spots frequently show up as shiny areas where the sides rub on the carcase, and these parts should be lightly planed. When the drawer fits the opening it is ready to receive the drawer slips; these are made, as Fig. 3 (a), by first ploughing the edge of a suitably sized piece of wood, gauging the thickness of the slip and rounding off the top edge, as indicated by the broken line, and then sawing off the required strip. Clean off the sawn surface with the plane. The thickness of the slip should be about equal to the thickness of’ the drawer side, so that the area of the running surface of the sides is approximately doubled when the slips are in place. On the front end of the slip cut a tongue equal to the size of the groove, as in This enables the slip to be located exactly in the groove on the front. At the back end of the slip the top rounded portion is removed, as at B in Fig. 3 (c), so that the top of the groove on the slip will be level with the underside of the back. Glue the slips in place and allow the glue to set.
Fit the bottom into the groove; if solid wood is being used the grain should be parallel with the front of Principal details of construction of a typical rebated drawer.
the drawer, as in Fig. 2 (a). Slots to fit the shank of the screws are cut in the bottom at the back edge to allow for shrinkage, and the bottom is screwed from underneath to the lower edge of the back of the drawer. To allow for possible shrinkage in a solid piece the drawer bottom must project beyond the back of the drawer; if plywood is being used for the bottom no allowance for shrinkage need be made.
A drawer stop should be fitted to the bottom drawer rail to prevent the drawer from running in too far; Fig. 3 (d) shows these details. In order that the front face of the drawer, when closed, may be level with the
framework, the stop must be sit back from the front edge of the rail distance equal to the thickness of t drawer front. Set a gauge to th s thickness and gauge a line on
rail. Two stops should gene ally be used; these are small blocks of wood slightly thinner than t e space below the drawer bottom Glue and pin these stops in position exactly level with the gauge mark on the rail.
Rebated Drawer. A simpler type of drawer, which can be used for small articles, is shown in Fig. 1. It is not 4s strong as the dovetailed drawer, but is easier to make, the sides beings t into a rebate on the front, and glucd and nailed in place, and the back housed into grooves in the sides. The bottom is fixed as for the dovetailed drawer by means of drawer slips; if preferred, a slip could be used oil the front as well, instead of the groove shown.
Fit the front and sides to the c r-case as described for the dovetail d drawer ; the essentials for obtairim a well-flitting drawer are the same in each case. Set the gauge to a distance which is just a shaving less than tlile thickness of the sides, and gauge tie inside of the drawer front as at S in Fig. 4.
Next gauge the amount of lap for the side, as at L in Fig. 4. Saw down the shoulder-line of the rebate, and saw or chisel out the waste down to the gauge line. Place the two sides together and square off the position of the groove for the housing of
back, the distance apart of the t~o lines being exactly equal to the thiqkncss of the back, as at A in Fig. Square these lines across on to I inside of the sides, and saw a chisel the grooves, the depth of which is fixed by a gauge line.
Saw the back of the drawer to its exact length, remembering that it is shorter than the front by twice the distance X in Fig. 4. The depth of the back must be less than that of the sides, and its bottom edge should be level with the top of the groove on the front of the drawer. Glue and nail the sides to the front and back, and be certain to punch the heads of the nails just below the surface, so avoiding damage to the plane when cleaning up the drawer. Test the drawer for squareness and allow the glue to set. Plane Lip the sides so that the drawer fits the carcase, and fit the slips and bottom, as described for the dovetailed drawer.
For a sticking drawer, candle-grease, soap or talcum powder is an excellent lubricant ; waxes such as beeswax have a tendency to be rather too tacky.
Simple Drawer. A simple construction, which could be used for very small drawers is the third example illustrated in Fig. 1. The bottom is rebated into the front and sides
FIG. 5. Drawer of simple glued-andnailed construction. Parts are cut away in the drawing to show details.
Fi(;. 6. Drawer with a groove formed in the side (a); how a drawer may he .fitted under a flat top (b and c).
(Fig. 5), and is nailed or screwed in place. The sides are fitted as for the rebated drawer, the back being the same length as the distance between the shoulders of the rebate on the front. Rebate the front and sides, and k1lue and nail the drawer; test for squareness, and clean up when glue is set. Fit and fix the bottom.
Drawer with Grooved Sides. It is sometimes desired to fit a drawer between two flat vertical members which have no horizontal members to support the runners. This can be achieved as indicated in Fig. 6 (a). A groove is made in each side of the drawer only, the front remaining Untouched. A thin fillet which slides comfortably into the groove is screwed to each side of the carcase, to support the drawer. The front of the drawer at the end of the groove acts as a stop for the drawer.
Drawer Under a Flat Top. When a drawer is required under a flat top, such as the top of a workbench, it can be fitted as shown in Fig. 6 (b). A rebated block is screwed to the bench, and a fillet, which fits the
groove thus formed, is screwed to each of the drawer sides. An alterna.. tive to the rebated block can be built up from two pieces, as shown in Fig. 6 (c), and is just as efficient. A block screwed to the bench at the back of the drawer will effectively prevent it from going too far into the opening.
CUPBOARDS
Small Cupboard. A simple cupboard built up of framed panels fastened together is shown in Fig. 1. The dimensions given in Fig. 2 (a) are for a cupboard 2 ft. high by 16 in. wide and 12 in. deep, but these proportions can be modified to suit the purpose of the article.
The front frame is jointed together by haunched mortise-and-tenon joints, while the rest of the frames and also the door have similar joints, with the addition of the groove for
FIG. 1. Small cupboard made up of framed panels and a boarded top.
the panel (which has to be allowed for in cutting the joints). Details of the grooved joint are shown in Fig. 2 (b); the variations in the dimensions of the different parts to suit the differing widths of the bottom rails of the carcase and door are indicated in Figs. 2 (d) and (c).
After planing the wood to size, all parts that are to be of the same length should be marked out together. Since all eight of the vertical members, or stiles, of the carcase have to be identical, they should be cramped together and the position of the Joints and the final lengths squared across all eight pieces together. Similarly the two front rails and the two back rails can be marked together, and then all four side rails.
Set the mortise gauge to the .’-in. mortise chisel, and gauge all the mortises and tenons at the same time, after first squaring around all the necessary shoulder-lines. Cut all the mortises, and then saw down the cheeks of all the tenons. Next set the plough so that the width of the groove made is equal to the thickness of the material for the panel ; plywood is very suitable, but solid wood may be used if preferred.
Set the stop of the plough to make the groove about J in. deep, and uggested dimensions for the cupboard (a) and details of the grooved
.joints (b). At (c) is shown a plate used for securing the top, and at (d) and (e)
dimensions for the bottom rails ol’the side frame and of the door.
plough the groove on all pieces of the framework, making certain that the work is done from the face side of the wood in every case. Saw off the shoulders of the tenons, and cut the haunches to fit, easing off the plough groove at the ends of the stiles so that the haunch on the tenon will fit the groove at the end. Cramp up each frame to see that the joints fit properly, and carefully measure the size of the frame on the inside to obtain the dimensions of the panel, remembering to add the depth of the groove at both sides, since the panel is to fit into them.
Cut the panel to size, test it in place in the frame, and cramp up. If the joints are forced apart when the pressure of the cramps is slightly eased, then the panel is probably a little too large; this must be adjusted, otherwise the panel will force the joint apart after it is glued up. If the
panel is of solid wood, the width must be ~ in. less to allow for normal expansion in damp weather. Without this allowance expansion would tend to push the joint open, or to cause buckling of the panel.
When satisfied that the frame and panel are correct, glue the joints and assemble, placing a spot of glue on the centre of the edge of the panel as shown at A and B in Fig. 3. This fixes the position of the panel and stops it moving in the frame. Cramp up the frame, test for squareness, see that it is not in winding, and allow the glue to set before cleaning up the frame. It must be remembered that the front frame differs from the others in that it is not grooved on the inside.
When all four frames are prepared, screw or nail the front and back frames on to the two end frames, as shown in Fig. 2 (a), and the main carcase will be complete. Measure Sectional riew showing how the shelf and bottom are fitted.
the size of the door-opening in the front frame, and make the door in exactly the same manner as the other sections. The door is made a fraction
-full” in size as a provision for slight planing down when completed, in order to obtain an exact fit. Hinge the door in place with a pair of 2-in. brass butt hinges. The ends of the hinges are usually placed level with the inside edges of the top and bottom rails, as in Fig. 2 (a).
Fig. 3 gives a sectional view of the cupboard, showing the method of fitting the shelf and bottom. The shelf is held in position by means of fillets screwed to the stiles at each side, and the bottom is secured by fillets screwed all round on the inside of the
base. The front edge of the bottoii acts as a stop for the door.
The top is of solid wood, overlapping the carcase by I in., and he~d in place by small metal plates which allow for the expansion or contra
Q-
of the wood. Details of thefe- plates are given in Fig. 2 (c). If a pliwood top is preferred, it should tie made slightly smaller than the top 6f the carcase, and secured with pan~l pins. A wooden handle is shown in the assembly illustration, and is screwed oil from the inside, but any oth r formof suitable fastening may e used.
Store Cupboard. A good-sized cup board is needed in most homes,
one illustrated in Fig. 4 could be used in the kitchen, as a store cud_ board or as a toy cupboard. The legs are out of I ‘-in. stall’ and the rails are all tenoned into them.
A convenient height is betwee 2 ft. 6 in. and 3 ft. The other dimersions are shown in Fig. 5, where the details on the right illustrate one cf the back legs as seen from the inside. The top rails have haunched tenon $, and all side rails are grooved to take the plywood panels for the sides, the mortises being cut to allow for the reduction of the tenons by the groov
FIG. 4. For a larg,
cupboard than th,t
illustrated in Fig. 1, th,
two-door design show
here is suitable. Le.,
raise the carcase cle,
of the floor.
CONSTRUCTION OF
A STORE CUPBOARD
Note that the back rails are set in from the back face a distance equal to the thickness of the plywood
panel, probably 2. or 3 in., and the
back legs are rebated to the same depth and i in. wide, so that the back can be screwed to the legs as well as to the top and bottom rails.
on them. Cut the mortises and saw down the cheeks of all tenons.
Next plough the required grooves; then saw off the shoulders of the tenons and fit all the joints carefully. Cramp up the ends dry, to make sure that the frame goes together correctly, and then fit the panels. Cramp
I ~6 In. SQUARE
FIG. 5. Principal dimensions of the cupboard illustrated in Fig. 4, together
with details of the jointing of the rails into the left-hand back leg.
‘File legs are grooved to take the side panels only, as seen in Fig. 5.
The front rails are fitted flush with the front surface of the legs, as in the detail drawings Figs. 6 (a) and (b), the ends of the tenons being mitred where they meet inside the leg.
Commence the construction by cramping all four legs together; mark out across them the final lengths and the positions of all mortises. Repeat the procedure with all rails that have to be the same length, and square across the shoulder-lines
up the front and back dry, in the same way. When satisfied that all joints are correct, rebate the back legs for the back panel. Glue up and cramp the two sides first, test for squareness and flatness, and allow the glue to set.
Clean up the ends, taking particular care to remove any excess glue that may be in the mortises. Again cramp up dry to test the final fitting; if satisfactory, dismantle for gluing and then cramp up the whole structure. Clean up when the glue is set, and fit and screw on the back panel to the rebates on the back leg, and to the top and bottom rails.
The bottom is fitted in exactly the same manner as described for the small cupboard on page 226, by screwing fillets to the bottom rails so that the bottom is supported all round. One or more shelves may be
fitted as for .the previous cupboar and supported by light batters screwed to the legs on the inside.
The doors are as described for t e door of the cupboard on page 22 ; a slight fullness in size is allowed f r a little planing down to an exact M. If the meeting stiles of the door a e left butted together as in Fig. 6 (f ?I no complications arise, but if te doors are to overlap with a rebate, is shown in Fig. 6 (c), the inside stile of the left-hand door must be made I in. wider, as indicated, to allow for the overlap, so that the two stiles appear to be the same width from the front.
A lock may be fitted to the cupboard if desired, together with x ready-made knob or wooden handle, as for the previous cupboard.
The top overlaps as shown in Fig,, 5 and 6 (e); it is held in positio by means of metal plates as suggested for the preceding cupboard.
If a larger cupboard is required th~ panels will need one or more cross rails, according to height, as indcated by the broken line in the end view of Fig. 5 (a). The doors also will need a similar rail. These rails are mortised into the vertical me
bers and have grooves on their to) and bottom edges to take the pane~ The mortise is therefore equal to th width of the rail, minus twice tht depth of the groove (Fig. 6d).
Jointing of rails and legs (a and b), and a cross rail necessary in large frames (d); the other sketches give details of the doors, (c) and (f) being allernaHres,for the meeting stiles.

Dressing Tables, Mirrors and Washstands
Restoration appearance of the dressing table—lowboys and kneehole dressing tables—tables with fitted interiors—Vauxhall glass and Restoration wall mirrors—development of table mirrors with desk bases-18th-century wall mirrors—the mirror with candle sockets and arms—lightly made washstands of the 18th century.
Small side tables were used as dressing tables prior to the Restoration but were not constructed specifically for this purpose. Even during the latter half of the 17th century small occasional tables with a shallow drawer under the top were used in bedrooms and dressing rooms for holding toilet preparations and hand mirrors. Standing table mirrors had not yet been introduced and rectangular wall mirrors with wide convex frames were hung upon the wall above the tables used for dressing.
It was not until the reign of William and Mary that
dressing tables, which were designed for the purpose,
appeared on the scene. This type of table is sometimes
referred to as a writing table and in America is known as a
lowboy. It was constructed with two small drawers above a
single, long drawer and usually stood on four cabriole
legs. Like most of the furniture of the period it was made
in veneered, burr walnut. Some versions had a single,
shallow drawer situated under the table top with deeper
and narrower drawers at either side. Another class of
dressing table which was made about the same time was
the knee-hole pattern. This consisted of two nests of small
drawers on either side of a recessed cupboard. Any doubt
as to whether this piece of furniture might have been designed as a knee-hole desk may be dispelled wherever a pull-out brushing or dressing slide is found immediately under the top.
During the first quarter of the 18th century a further development occurred when the dressing table top was made to open like a chest lid. On the underside a framed rectangular mirror was fitted and the space immediately beneath was divided by partitions into numerous receptacles and boxes for holding cosmetics, pins and all the paraphernalia of the toilet set. The dressing table with the lift-up top and fitted interior continued to be made during the greater part of the long Georgian period, often without any drawers at all. On the other hand, there was a vogue for small chests of drawers, where the top drawer contained a mirror and fitted interior, which would also serve as dressing tables.
In an earlier chapter, mention was made of certain ingenious designs for small articles of furniture which were intended for some particular purpose and among these may be included the poudreuse. This was a small dressing table in which a central section of the top opened back to reveal a toilet mirror. On either side of this were two circular lids, let into the table top, which gave access to the powder containers beneath. This was for use in a time when both men and women wore elaborately dressed wigs which were always kept profusely powdered.
Before giving a more detailed description of the types of mirror used during the 17th and 18th centuries, a note on the development of mirror glass production in the British Isles during this time might prove helpful. The manufacture of clear plate glass for mirrors, except in rather small sizes, was not possible before the Restoration. The Duke of Buckingham sponsored the opening of a glassworks at Vauxhall in London about 1665, and a process for making larger sheets of glass was developed here. Because of the method of silvering then in use the makers were unable to produce mirrors of more than 4 feet in length. The thickness of the glass was appreciably less than that of later mirrors and one of the most important characteristics of these early examples was the very slight bevel which was ground on the edges. The steeper and sharper bevel belongs to those mirrors produced during the 19th century or later. Vauxhall glass continued to be made until nearly the end of the Georgian period and mirrors were also manufactured at certain other glasshouses, such as the one at Southwark.
As already mentioned, Restoration mirrors were surrounded with wide, convex framing which is sometimes referred to as bolection moulding. The frame was usually veneered with burr walnut, oystershell or flower marquetry. It was not until the later William and Mary period that swing-mirrors mounted on a stand were introduced. These were rectangular in shape with slightly incurving upper corners. They were pivoted on two straight uprights which fitted into a base containing a till of small drawers. A number of these early mirror bases were quite deep and sometimes had the appearance of miniature bureaux.
Later in the 18th century, bases became somewhat more shallow and had flat tops with serpentine or bow fronts which matched the dressing tables or chests of drawers upon which they were designed to stand. The uprights from which the mirror was suspended were also shaped and the mirrors were set in an oval framing or in one of shield or similar form. Towards the end of the century many small standing mirrors were made which had feet but no bases with drawers.
As the 18th century progressed new methods of silvering enabled larger mirrors to be made and these were usually framed in the architectural tradition with a frieze, cornice and pediment above. Those which were made to hang between the long sash windows of the Georgian withdrawing rooms were known as pier glasses. A small side table of similar design was often placed below the mirror or a console table with one elaborate supporting leg in the centre.
Convex mirrors were in favour after the introduction of sideboards in the time of Adam and Hepplewhite. It is said that they were designed to be hung above the sideboard so that the butler, without embarrassing the diners by too obviously overlooking, could watch the progress of the meal reflected in the mirror and could more unobtrusively direct his waiting servants in their duties. These convex mirrors with an ebony bezel and deep cavetto frames, decorated with a series of small gilded balls, date from those years around the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
The overmantel mirror was another pattern which was becoming more popular during the later Georgian period. It was introduced about 1745 at a time when fireplaces were beginning to be made smaller. This type of mirror was very often designed with three glass panels, one larger central mirror being flanked by two smaller ones. They were frequently produced with architectural embellishments in the Adam style and the frieze above the glass carried a conventional design of husks in swags, ribbons and medallions or a low-relief group of classical figures. As the 19th century progressed the overmantel mirror was made in one large sheet of glass which steadily increased in size until it almost filled the entire wall space over the mantelpiece.
Because it was realised that a good reflecting surface would increase the volume of light, many 18th century wall mirrors were equipped with branches and candle sockets. Small mirrors in plain frames with a single candle branch were known as sconces while those in elaborately carved and gilded settings of rococo design were called girandoles after the French originals. Girandoles were usually of asymmetrical shape but were made in pairs to produce a symmetrical or balanced effect.
Personal cleanliness was not the sort of thing that people of the 17th and 18th centuries worried much about. When the Romans occupied these islands 1500 years earlier, the civilised Britons lived in villas which were well equipped with hot baths and other hygienic amenities. These disappeared after the end of the Roman occupation and were not revived until the reign of Queen Victoria was more than half over.
In Chippendale’s time a superficial rinsing of hands and face was all that was considered necessary in the way of daily ablutions. Consequently, mid-Georgian washstands were very lightly made. There were two main types, the first of which was rectangular in shape with a double lid on the top. The water jug and basin were kept in a small cupboard beneath and when required were lifted out and placed in a circular recess in the top, after the lids had been opened.
The second type was even more lightly made and con-
sisted of a rectangular or triangular stand, on the top of
which the ewer and basin were placed permanently, but a
shelf was provided half-way down on which to stand the
jug while the basin was being used. The triangular wash-
stand was designed to fit into a corner and was probably
intended for the smaller bedrooms where space might
be at a premium. These stands are often employed nowa-
days as bedside tables, to take a reading lamp and a book.
Unfortunately, the original top with the basin hole in it is
sometimes replaced. While it is necessary to carry out
some modification if the stand is to be used as a table, it
is always preferable to leave an antique piece of furniture
in its original state. Here the problem may be solved by overlaying a new top on the original one. A third, but much less common type of small wash-basin stand is dealt with in the following chapter.
The introduction of larger jugs and basins made of the new ironstone china in the early 19th century and the growing demand for better washing facilities produced a larger and more strongly made washstand. This was about 3 feet in length with high sides and back to prevent water being splashed around. The top was plain, without a recess for the basin, and there were two drawers underneath with a shelf nearer the floor. These Regency washstands were usually made in mahogany with turned legs. They make very good writing tables as modern bedrooms with running water or an adjacent bathroom render their original purpose obsolete.

THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD
HEPPLEWHITE began his career as a cabinet maker
at a time when the art of cabinet making was at its ifullest tide kakiemon porcelain . The second half of the eighteenth century is often called the golden age of cabinet making, and by I- `6o, when Hepplewhite settled in business at Cripple-gate, the standard of design and craftsmanship was at its zenit1h walnut tripod tea table . The Chippendale school was still in its prime, and they was a strong group of craftsmen who had ingrained in the — a fine trade tradition, a thing which implies something more than a mere ability to use tools antique card table collectors . It means a sense of appreciation and a certain element of originality, tempered with the convention that belongs to a workshop where everything is done by hand silver tripod table .
George Hepplewhite was one of these practical men english bristol teapots . He was scarcely a designer in the sense that Robert Adam was antique english stoneware identification . He did not sit down at his drawing board and sketch out purely original designs, but his work had characteristic features that can usually be recognised andre’ japaneese porcelain . As a cabinet maker he knew his job perfectly, and, in addition, he had a keen appreciation of fine line which enabled him to give his work a certain individuality in a way that would be beyond a man of no imagination eighteenth century women dressing in front of men in their bedchamber . In this sense he no doubt influenced the trade considerably, but beyond this he simply worked in a certain style which a group of cabinet makers was following angouleme guerhard . His name has come to be attached to that style probably because of his book, The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide, and that was not published until 1788, two years after his death antique wooden pot cupboard .
It is apparent, then, in speaking of Hepplewhite furniture a general style popular from about 1760 until practically the end of the century is implied rather than the work of Hepplewhite himself as an individual dutch antique furniture . A great deal of furniture no doubt was made in the workshop at Cripplegate, but except in a few rare instances it is impossible definitely to identify it antique drop-leaf bread table .
Taken generally, Ilepplewhite furniture was comparatively simple antique blue glass kidney shaped end table . There were a few touches of decoration (usually applied), but even the most ornate specimens had nothing like the elaboration found in the richer Chippendale pieces english porcelain parian . Several new forms of decoration were introduced or revived, for whereas Chippendale work had little other form of decoration besides carving, Hepplewhite furniture had
FIG (chineseexportporcelaincoffeeservice) . 130 tambour commode . SHIELD BACK CHAIR french art deco porcelain jaguar .
1770-1780 spoonback armchair .
One of the finest chairs produced in the 18th century “antique collectors blog” .
For all their lightness these chairs were extremely strong art nouveau jugendstil jugs .
being made in the finest mahogany and of the best work-
manship multipurpose dressing table .
inlay, painting, and gilding in addition to carving glass table antique ceramic legs . The inlay usually took the form of bandings and strings in satinwood, rosewood, ebony, and so on, and was in fact very similar to the inlaid work usually associated with Sheraton glass boudoir lamp deco . Carving was of small classical subject, vases, festoons, draped cloth, and swags of husks, an entire departure from the elaborate scrolling acanthus leafwork of the Chippendale school duke extendable dining table .
It is perhaps in the chair that the Hepplewhite charac-
HOOP BACK
CHAIR antique empire or regency style mahogany bookcase .
1770-1780 english seventeenth century cabinets .
A favourite motif of Hepple-
whitewere the ears of wheat ball and claw tripod table antique . These appear at
the top of the pierced splat
in the back 18th century wardrobe .
11
FIG carved japanese tea table . 132 edgar brandt reproductions snake lamp . OVAL BACK
CHAIR pennsylvania house antique sideboard .
1770-1780-
The French influence is
strongly marked In this
chair world market carved brass charger plate . Except for this
French form the cabriole
leg was never used by
the late 18th century
designers antique silver sphinx .
SIDEBOARD WITH BREAK FRONT DECORATED WITH INLAY pembroke end table .
Late i8th century,
It was not until towards the end of the 18th century that the sideboard with drawer and cupboard accommodation
was made epergne antique for sale . It was evolved from the side table with separate pedestals recipe for “soft paste porcelain” . It is difficult to distinguish between
Hepplewhite and Sheraton pieces as both had a great deal in common italian deco furniture .
The Shield Back Chair
teristic is most marked de coene freres . Probably the most famous type is the shield back, of which an example is given in Fig small sutherland table . 130- A really fine example of a shield back ranks amongst the most beautiful things ever produced, but, like the cabriole leg, first-rate examples are rare antique folding “coaching table” . The truth is that it takes a first-class chair maker of considerable experience to make one properly, the difficulty being that the shaping runs in three directions 16th century english joyned table . There is the shield shape seen from the front, the backward rake, and the concave plan shape antique table turned legs . To incorporate all these to form one harmonious whole is something that calls for a great deal of skill and experience antique inlaid table birds .
As a rule the main back framing had a channelled moulding worked all round it, and the probable reason for this was that it helped to emphasise the shield shape steuben stemware deco . It will be realised that, although the lower part of the shield appears to be in one piece, it is in reality in three dresser with mirrors & teardrop pulls & ogee bracket . The side portions in fact continue down, forming the back legs, and a curved bottom rail is fitted in to complete the shape between them 18th century marquetry . By channelling the wood the shield appears to be in one unbroken piece william iv jupe extending circular . The front legs of these chairs were invariably tapered louis sue .
The chief outside influences of Hepplewhite were the Adam and the French raoul dufy, plates ceramique . Of the latter there was Louis XV, which showed itself in the cabriole leg exemplified in Fig classical work/sewing table mahogany,3 drawers,carved legs, pedestal paw feet . 132 olive green and iron red oriental porcelain . Note the French scrolled foot and the flat shaping which continues along the front seat rail in an unbroken sweep arabisque furniture in ny . Another French influence came from the Louis XVI, and one result was the use of the turned leg 18th and 19th century silversmithing . An example of this is the settee in Fig antique spoons italy silver ornate . 129 papier mache tray-c19th .
Other typical Hepplewhite chair backs are the hoop back, of which Fig antique drop leaf or gate leg tables, ,ny . 131 is an example, the oval back (Fig antique 5 leg oak drop leaf table . 132), heart shape, and that with the serpentine shaped top rail curving into the uprights mackintosh wooden chairs .
Pieces such as sideboards, writing tables, bureaux, chests of drawers, tallboys, wardrobes, and so on were, as already mentioned, extremely like Sheraton furniture, and are dealt with more fully in Chapter X curved back chair from 1940s . The bedstead in Fig french chamber pot bed tables . 129 is a four-poster, very like one appearing in Hepplewhite’s book, and shows the general restraint in treatment walnut tripod tea table .
Fig clawfoot dresser . 133 is a sideboard belonging to the last few years of the eighteenth century trestle table double column . It has characteristics of the Hepplewhite style, but there are others which belong equally to Sheraton, and, as we are dealing with what might be termed schools of design rather than the work of individuals, it is apparent that one can do little more than term it late eighteenth century antique french empire . It is probably the work of a cabinet maker whose name has not come down to posterity, and who worked in the traditional style of the period edwards & roberts furniture .
THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
ADAM PERIOD
N one important sense Robert Adam was entirely
different from the other outstanding characters with
-whose work this book deals serpentine top breakfast table . He was an architect by profession, not a practical cabinet maker, and in turning his attention to furniture he was not in any way fettered by any convention which a tradesman might have 19century british armschairs . It is not suggested that the convention of a good trade tradition is bad ; it is one of the healthiest influences a craft can have ; but it simply is a statement of fact that Adam was able to approach the subject from a fresh angle italian inlaid tea table . He worked from his drawing board and passed on his designs to be carried out by a practical cabinet maker porcelain spanish dancers .
He had travelled a good deal in France and Italy, and on his return in 1758 he set himself up as an architect and rapidly became very successful antique furniture prohibition bar examples . As a result of his foreign studies he was influenced considerably by the classical school, but he had a strong individual turn, and as a result his work had a characteristic touch which made it different from that of other architects working in the classical style antique drop leaf table for sale . It was delicate and refined (some term it effeminate), abounding in small intricate detail, and it superseded largely the rather heavier work of such architects as Sir William Chambers “empire designer, best known for pedestal tables with curved legs .
His connection with furniture was that in designing an interior he included the furniture as an essential part of the scheme blue china tea set with silver inlay england . To the average architect the work was finished when the walls and ceiling had been decorated, but Adam required every detail, even to the ornaments on the sideboard, to harmonise with his ideas japanese portable cherry wood tea tables . Perhaps the most notable example is that of Harewood House, in which the furniture was designed by Adam and executed by Chippendale antique ball and claw desk .
Although there were marked characteristics in Adam furniture, one has to be wary in accepting a piece as genuine Adam Characteristics
Adam chinese furnture form mid 19th centuary . The fact that he had to employ practical cabinet makers, combined with his great success, soon led to a great deal of imitation simple european furniture . In fact, of all the ” Adam ” work that has survived only a very small part can be identified as owing its origin to Adam himself regency period casters .
FIG porcelaine antique motif ming . 137 louis the 14th chair . DINING TABLE WITH FLAP AND PIVOTED BACK LEG japanese laqure tea table .
Abotd 1775•
This is one of a pair of tables Intended to be placed together when used
for dining silver flatware wood handle . The front rail is in reality a drawer front brass ornaments for furniture empire style . It now stands In
the Victoria and Albert Museum South Kensington 1828 sideboard buffet .
self was an individual and original designer, ” Adam ” furniture was, for the most part, the work of a school working in his style antique wood drop leaf table .
Adam used many methods of decoration in his furniture antique oak dropleaf gateleg table . The carving had definite characteristics shearers cupboard heavy . The acanthus leafage was finer and more delicately treated than in the full scrolled form which Chippendale had favoured, and, in addition, he used chains of husks, the honeysuckle device, Greek key, vases, drapery, plaques carved with mythological subjects, rams’ heads, and grotesques antique empire furniture . Inlay and marquetry, too, were revived, and were carried out in satinwood, tulip-wood, rosewood, amboyna, harewood, and so on biedermeier antique de . The subjects were similar to those of the carving furniture designersgerman . Another form of decoration was painting in the style of Angelica Kauffman meissen porcelain antic . A popular treatment was to make these painted panels the main feature of a design of scrolling acanthus leafwork
FIG antique dishes germany pastels with scallops . 138 henry clay bed and furniture . SEMI-CIRCULAR ADAM SIDE TABLE ferniture leg in itali .
T770-1780 antique table in europe .
An extremely fine piece of cabinet work carried out In mahogany antique vase markings newcastle.. on. tyne 1762 . The
curved top rail is veneered, the grain running crosswise 17 century elm gateleg table . The centre
panel and the oval pater2e are typical features brass frame girandole images .
and husks 17th and 18th century french silver marks . In some few instances, too, Wedgwood plaques were introduced bidet square .
A typical Adam sideboard is shown in Fig lion antique mahogany dining table . 136 royal sheffield silver . Properly speaking, it is a side table with two pedestals, but the three pieces were intended to stand together and form a whole In some cases the pedestals were actually joined to the table, though the result never seems quite so successful furniture of meiji period . It gives one the impression that the three pieces were actually separate at one time and were fixed together antique silver candelabras made in england . It is true that there was a general tendency to make the sideboard a single unit, but it was only when the pedestals lost their indivi-The Adam Sideboard
duality as such that the result was really a success labels under boulle furniture . The Sheraton sideboard in Fig makers of antique tea tables . 14 wheat shaped dining table base .4 exemplifies the point furniture  finmar ltd . The origin of the pedestals can just be traced, but they are essentially a part of the design as a whole “art, nouveau”"chiparus”"deer” .
The pedestals owed their origin to the lack of accommodation in the side table andres rosewood solid wood . If one refers back to the side table of Chippendale’s time in Fig chromed trestle table leg . 11 5 it is obvious that its only use was to provide standing space on its top directoire phyfe sofa . There were no drawers or cupboards in which table furniture could be kept opalescent glass perfume france . It fell to Adam to introduce the pedestals antique walnut telescooic dining table . Sometimes they were fitted up with metal grids to enable hot irons to be placed in the cupboards, so providing ? means of warming plates The urns at the top either had metal containers in which iced water was kept, or they were fitted up to hold cutlery antique rosewood armoire with claw feet . The more ornate specimens were often carved with rams’ heads, drapery, husks, and other devices selling japanese tea tables antique .
Towards the end of the century the cabriole leg practically died right out 18th century chippendale dresser . Adam never used it upholstered wood chairs from 1930s . In most cases he preferred the square tapered leg with small square feet fashion 17th century . They were usually recessed in their tapered portion, a pendant of husks often being carved in the recess near the top old gate leg table ball feet . The leg at C, Fig second hand old oak table in staffordshire . 139, shows this detail antique ladik rug . Another common treatment was to carve a series of flutes along the length, the lower part often being filled in with reeds (see A in Fig french antique occasional tables . 139)•
A particularly fine example of an Adam dining table is given in Fig important american girandole mirror . 137 english hepplewhite dressing table . It is one of a pair napoleon antique campaign chair . In use the two would be placed together, flap to flap, so forming one large table meals in eighteenth century england . The flap is supported by a single leg made to pivot frosted glass vase with smokey streaks . Thus when not required for dining the tables could be placed flat against the wall and become useful side tables antique chinese circular revolving bookcase . The decorative treatment is well worth noting antique porclean handled sheffeld flatware . The tapered legs are fluted on all sides except one, this being carved with a crisscross design set in a recess antique table round drop leaf claw foot . At the top are paterx carved with leafwork theodore haviland 1958 pattern . The fluted top rail with the plain centre part carved with swags of husks is typically Adam english stoneware marks . He invariably introduced this centre panel french meals17th century .
An example of a small side table with turned and carved legs is given in Fig furniture cupboard design,side board,wood . 138 george hepplewhite bottle case . It exemplifies well the delicate treatment of which Adam was so fond meissen porcelain animalsfrederick augustus . Note the use of the centre panel again, this time of quite plain form see a silver sauceboat with a heated base . Other kinds of Adam legs and feet are given in Fig antique glass top tea table bird . 139•

TABLES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FIRST HALF)
The Elizabethan table, either of the draw or fixed top type, continued with little variety in form during the reigns of the early Stuarts and Cromwellian times. The legs were of the heavy bulbous turned kind, generally carved, though the tendency as the seventeenth century progressed was to thin down the turning and omit the carving. In the full bulbous early Jacobean leg extra pieces were glued on at all four sides to provide wood for the required thickness. This can be seen clearly in the table in Fig. 23, P. 29, in which the squares at top and bottom of the legs show the original thickness of the wood. Later Jacobean legs were usually no thicker than could be turned from the squares of wood with no extra applied pieces. Fig. 44 shows a table dating from about the middle of the seventeenth century with turned baluster legs of this kind.
Up to this time the chief, and practically only, use of a table was that of dining, and now that people were settling into a more comfortable way of living the usefulness of a smaller form of table must have become felt. For instance, in the smaller private rooms a huge draw table was unnecessary, yet some form of table was essential. Again, in the smaller houses there would not be room for the large dining table, yet a fairly large one would be needed to seat everyone at meals. The result was the introduction of the gate-leg table, with its circular, oval, or rectangular top divided into three pieces, the centre one of which was fixed to the main framework, the others being hinged to it.

That in Fig. 46 is an example of the better kind, the legs being turned and the whole thing framed together with mortise and tenon joints. A cruder example is that in Fig. 45, in which the uprights are merely solid pieces with a rather crude shaping cut at the sides. The ” gates,” too, are made up from plain strips of square wood.

VARIOUS CABINETS
There were two kinds of cabinets chiefly in use in Jacobean dining-rooms, the Court cupboard and the buffet, with its three tiers open at all sides. Both of these came into use in Elizabethan times, and we now come to the form they took in the seventeenth century. It is instructive to turn to the Elizabethan example of a Court cupboard on p. 38 and compare it with its Jacobean counterpart in Fig. 48. In the former the upper stage is canted at the sides, and the turnings are of the full bulbous kind, richly carved all over. In the later example the upper stage is rectangular and is recessed only slightly, and the turnings are considerably smaller and are plain. In this they follow the tendency already noted in regard to the legs of tables. As the century progressed the turnings became mere pendants beneath the frieze without reaching down to the lower part of the cabinet. This was the final stage of the Court cupboard. It died a natural death during the second half of the century, for it was essentially a piece for the well-to-do man, and when walnut came into popularity it just disappeared.
It was in a different class from the dresser, which belonged more to the farmhouse, and which continued to be made even throughout the eighteenth century. Such a dresser is given in Fig. 49. It may be noted in passing that this was evolved directly from the side table of the kind shown on p. 34. There was no upper staging of shelves, the latter being added later when plates and dishes became more plentiful.

A smaller item that may be mentioned here is the Bible Box, see Fig. 50. Every family of any note had its Bible in those days, and it was a most treasured possession. A place in which it could be kept safely was desirable, hence the various small boxes which have survived. Some of them were provided with a stand and a sloping lid upon which the Bible could rest at a convenient angle when being read. In the finer specimens the fronts were carved with the usual conventional floral work as in the examples given.

Occasionally one finds the interior of these boxes fitted up, probably for the purpose of holding deeds and other valuable papers. It is possible that some were intended specifically for the purpose of writing, but against this there is the fact that few people could write in the seventeenth century, and it would have been most uncomfortable to write at, being far too high. Reading was the more probable purpose of the sloping top, any writing that was done being incidental.

FIG. 49. FARMHOUSE DRESSER WITH PLATE RACK.
Second half 17th century.
Although made in oak there are features which suggest the walnut
period, specially in the shaped headings to the upper cupboards. The
turned legs, however, are purely Jacobean.

FIG. 48. COURT CUPBOARD IN JACOBEAN TIMES.
Mid. 17th century.
An interesting comparison can be made with the cupboard on p. 38. Note the substitution of thinner and plain turnings in the upper storey.

FIG. 50. SMALL BIBLE BOXES AND DESKS.17th
century.
The object of the sloping lid was probably to provide a convenient rest
for the Bible when being read, though it is possible that some were
intended for writing.

TABLES
The table is a fairly obvious piece of furniture. It is required for all kinds of purposes in the house, though its chief function is for use when dining. One of the earliest surviving specimens are the huge trestle tables at Penshurst Hall, Kent. They date from the fourteenth century, when it was still the custom for the entire household to dine together in the great hall. One would be placed across the upper end of the hall, usually on a raised dais, and another, or sometimes two, at right angles to it, going lengthwise along the hall. The more important guests used the raisedThe tendency to use a framed-up construction already mentioned in connection with the chest is seen in the next stage of the table, when an underframing of four or six legs joined by rails (such as in the present-day table) was used. There stands in the museum at South Kensington an interesting table dating from the opening years of the sixteenth century. It has square legs with the corners chamfered, and the top rails are shaped on the underside with the Gothic arch formation. The long form in Fig. ig has this shaping—in fact it is a companion to the table of which we are speaking. Its most interesting feature, however, is that it is of the ” draw ” type ; that is, it is provided with extending leaves which, contained beneath the top when not required, can be drawn out, so increasing the size of the top considerably. As a matter of passing interest, this type of table has again become popular at the present time ; indeed, few extending tables are made now which have not this method of extension.
Bulbous Turnings.—The draw table of the Elizabethan period is shown in Fig. 23, and the feature that at once strikes one are the heavy bulbous legs. These represent a fashion in turning that had the most amazing popularity in Elizabethan times and in the first half of the seventeenth century. Turning had been introduced in this country during the sixteenth century, though it does not appear to have been widely used until about the middle of the century. One imagines that the turners, having acquired the technique, decided to make the most of what they had learnt, for there is nothing really logical about such disproportionate legs. The strength of the leg is governed by its thinnest part, so that the heavy bulbous part is entirely wasted from the constructional point of view.
In the particular table shown in Fig. 23 the legs are plain, direct from the lathe, but in most cases they were elaborately carved with nullings, scrolled acanthus leafwork, and other details, as shown on the turnings in the Court cupboard in Fig. 29. Possibly this is another reason why they appealed to the Elizabethans ; they offered such scope for decorative detail.
In most cases the stretcher rails ran round the four sides of the table in the same way as the rails at the top, but occasionally the H arrangement in Fig. 23 is found. In one, and the retainers were accommodated at the others in rotation, the serfs sitting at the lower end.
These trestle tables were generally made with movable tops, so that they could be taken to pieces and stored away when the floor space was required to be cleared. They were extremely massive in build, with tops of 4 in. or so in thickness, supported by heavy trestles or pedestals. The illus-BUFFET WITH BULBOUS TURNINGS.
Late 16th century.
Thiswas the Elizabethan form of sideboard. The modern dinner wagon
is of similar formation. Often a drawer was fitted beneath the top, the
rail acting as the drawer front.
tration of the hall at Penshurst Place on p. 12 shows these tables.
When as the years passed men sought more privacy there arose a demand for smaller tables which could be used in the smaller private room in which the family took their meals. The rise, too, of the merchant class brought about the erection of vast numbers of smaller houses, and so there have survived a fair number of smaller tables dating from the sixteenth century. The term ” smaller ” is used com-paratively. Actually they usually measure 6 ft. to 9 ft. or io ft. in length.
At the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the next the Gothic tradition was still strong, and tables
FIG. 31. FOUR-POSTER WITH PANELLED HEAD AND TESTER.
Second half 16th century.
These were extremely massive structures and were held in great value.
They were often specifically mentioned in wills. Note the holes in the
bed frame to support the mattress and clothes.
were often still of the trestle kind shown in Fig. 22. It will be noted that the rails are held to the trestles with wedges, so that the whole thing could be stacked away when not required in use. It is interesting to compare the Gothic shaping of the trestles with that of the small stool in Fig. 20.other types two legs only were used, these being built into the centre of the end rails and fitted with cross pieces at the bottom, and were a revival of the pedestal leg used in Gothic times, as exemplified by the Penshurst table on p. 12, except that the bottom was joined by a stretcher and the top had a framing to contain the mechanism of the extension.

ELIZABETHAN
COURT CUPBOARD.
Late z61h century.
love of Elizabethan crafts. This exemplifies well the men for ornament of every
kind. The upper recessed portion is inlaid with various woods such as apple, holly, cherry, bog oak, and stained woods. The carving is typical of
the time, being virile, deep and bold if somewhat barbaric in execution.

SETTLES, CHAIRS, AND STOOLS
It has been already noted that the chest was often used as a seat, and at a time when furniture was scarce one can understand that it would conveniently fulfil the purpose. Just what the first chair was like is doubtful. The writer came across the curious Penitent stool, Fig. 16, in the old church at Fordwich, in Kent, and it may be that a similar structure was used for secular purposes. It is a solid block of oak with a sort of huge notch cut in it to form a seat. The church itself dates from before the Norman Conquest, though the date of the stool itself is uncertain.
The earliest form of seating accommodation was probably evolved from the early planked chest as suggested by the dotted lines in the left hand illustration in Fig. 13. The construction of the two is practically identical, and one can conceive a craftsman of some imagination cutting away the front and back and evolving a long form of the kind in Fig. ig. The only real difference is that in the latter the ends or legs are given a cant to give stability, and are shaped out in Gothic form. Also the long rails are fitted in slots in the legs instead of being nailed to notches at the outside, and the underside is cut away in imitation of the heading of a Gothic arch.
The two stools in Fig. 20 show clearly this stage of development. That to the left is entirely of the planked chest formation, whilst the other has the refinements already noted in the use of slots to contain the side rails and the shaping of the rails and legs.
Just as the framed-up chest replaced the planked type, so a framed construction came to be used for stools. The method used for the one probably gave the suggestion for the other. Fig. 21 shows a stool of this type, and it is interesting to note that the chest idea is still retained in that a box is formed beneath the seat. The carved flutes partly filled with millings are a feature that was used considerably in Elizabethan times and in the following century.
Settles.—Returning to Fig. 13 it will be seen that the development of the settle from the framed-up chest is suggested. It seems a likely theory that this is what happened. The disadvantage of using a chest as a seat must have become obvious, and as men began to make their houses more comfortable and were able to afford more luxury it probably occurred to someone that by suitable adaptation the chest could be made far more comfortable. It meant merely that the back posts would have to be continued up to enable a back framing to be added, and the front posts taken up high enough to provide support for the arms.
The result was the form of settle shown in Fig. 15, which is virtually just a chest with the back and arms above it. The chest portion is retained with the seat acting as a lid. It seems that sometimes the chest was omitted, as shown in Fig. 14, though even here the panelled front is retained.
FIG. 26. SIDE TABLE WITH GOTHIC DETAILS.
Early 16th century.
A piece such as this would probably have stood in the dining hall of a
manor house. It is virtually a chest with the corner posts made extra
long to form legs. The Gothic tracery designs carved In the panels are
pierced right through.
This would be done partly from convention, and partly because it helped to keep away draughts which must have been strongly in evidence in early houses. This illustration is from a small piece of carving cut out of a solid block, and now in South Kensington Museum, and its chief interest from our point of view lies in its showing the form of settle used in the late fifteenth century.
As furniture became more plentiful, and there was no longer the rigid need for economy, the chest portion was eliminated entirely, the under-portion being made up of an open framing of turned legs and stretchers.
Evolution of the Chair.—The development of the chair was identical with that of the settle. It was really just a short chest or box with back and arms above it. That in Fig. 17 shows the early type. It is not suggested that this was the earliest form of chair (forgetting the Fordwich example, Fig. 16), but that the evolution of the domestic chair came about in this way. There is of course the famous coronation chair in Westminster Abbey which dates back to the fourteenth century, and there are various other early Gothic chairs in churches and halls in various parts of the country, but these were made for special purposes and cannot be classed in any way as domestic pieces.
By omitting the lower box portion the chair became less cumbersome, and, as we have noted, the need for economy was not of such importance. A particularly fine example dating from the end of the Tudor Gothic period is that in Fig. 18. It now stands in the museum at South Kensington, and there are several features about it that make a close examination worth while.
Firstly, the back is given a backward rake, a detail that soon occurred to the carpenters once the idea of a chair had been thought of. At first the back had been continued straight up (see the settle in Fig. 14), but any man who has sat in a straight-backed church pew for any length of time will appreciate how really uncomfortable this can become, and a similar conviction must have come into the minds of the early carpenters—or possibly the people who had the chairs made. Consequently the back was made to slope, but the legs were still kept upright, probably because the old convention derived from the chest structure did not suggest the desirability of giving them a corresponding slope.
It is surelya rather remarkable thing that for the whole of the sixteenth century, and for the better part of the next, chairs were still made with straight, upright back legs. One would imagine that it would occur to a man leaning back in a chair that some means might be invented of preventing the chair from tilting right back. It is true that the Elizabethan chairs were heavy, and this would certainly help to counterbalance the weight, but even so there must have been the tendency for a man to topple over backwards, especially when leaning back after a meal, during which the flagon might have passed freely. In the later years of the seventeenth century the heaviness of the chair was no longer an argument, for the chairs had become incomparably lighter and the height of the back had increased !
However, there it was, and in returning to the Elizabethan chair in Fig. 18 we find in it a detail showing that the possibility of an accident had occurred to its maker, in that the lower ends of the back legs are made extra thick at the back to help to prevent the chair from tilting backwards. It was probably the germ of the idea which resulted later in the legs being splayed outwards, though, as we say, it took a long time for it to develop.
Use of Inlay.—The ornamentation of the back brings to notice a form of decoration not yet mentioned, which came into great popularity during the second half of the sixteenth century, that of inlay. This was carried out entirely in the solid. That is, the background was carved out to receive the shaped inlays. All kinds of native woods were used, apple, pear, holly, cherry, and bog oak, and the design, as in the present example, was usually a conventional treatment of naturalesque motifs. Occasionally geometrical designs were used. The solid method should be noted in particular, because later on an entirely different system was evolved.
The shaped arms, terminating with semi-scrolled fronts, are of the kind invariably used in Elizabethan chairs, and it may be noted that chairs without arms are exceptional in the period. It is just another example of how ideas will cling on. Possibly it was felt that the arms gave a certain dignity to the person using the chair, for these were still reserved for the more important people, though they were becoming more plentiful.

TUDOR GOTHIC PLANKED HUTCH.    FIG. 28. FRAMED-UP TUDOR GOTHIC HUTCH.
Early 16th century.    First half 16th century.
Just as there were two systems of construction in the chest, so the early form of cupboard or hutch was made either by single
planks nailed or pegged together as in the left-hand example, or by a much improved method in which there was a framework with
panels fitting in grooves as in the hutch to the right.

TUDOR GOTHIC PERIOD
S0 few examples of English domestic furniture dating from a period earlier than the accession of Henry VIII exist, that for the purpose of this book there is little purpose served in going back earlier than the end of the fifteenth century, except to see how what had gone before influenced the woodwork that was to come. The longer the period that elapses, the greater the chances of destruction and decay, and the troublous times through which this country went in the Middle Ages certainly enabled destruction to carry out its work of waste. An army marching through an enemy country would spare little that came its way, and even in peaceful times the outbreak of fire must have been an ever-present source of danger. Domestic houses were invariably built of timber, and, as the fire on the open hearth was never or seldom allowed to go out, being just fanned to a flame every morning, the chances of the building catching fire must have been high.
Apart from this, however, furniture was a rare commodity in those days. Even in the larger houses the hall would contain little more than a large table, a chair for the owner of the house, forms and stools for the rest of the household, a cupboard of some sort, and a chest. In the chief sleeping room there would be a bed, a chest to hold clothes, and possibly a cupboard or press. The sleeping rooms for the less important people might contain little more than a mattress or even just a couch of rushes. Smaller houses were furnished on a correspondingly smaller scale, so that it becomes clear that the chances of survival were extremely small.
The closing years of the fifteenth century mark the beginning of a change in conditions. The accession of Henry VII had brought to an end the long period of strife known as the Wars of the Roses, and with the feeling of comparative security men began to find time to turn their attention to their houses. There could have been but little encouragement for a man to beautify his house when he knew that it might be burnt over his head either by the first party of soldiers that came marching through, or by a band of insurgents such as that headed by Jack Cade. His first thought would have been to fortify it against attack. It was not until warfare came to an end that he felt justified in making, or was able to make, himself more comfortable. Not that the change came quickly. The wars had bled the country of its manhood so that many a man who might have spent his life peaceably in making useful things was pressed into the service of his local lord to fight on whichever side happened to be in favour locally.
Coming of the Renaissance.—Nevertheless the coming of peace did encourage the development of the home as distinct from the fortified house, and, what was equally important, it set the stage, as it were, for that remarkable influence, the Renaissance, which was to sweep across the country during the sixteenth century. It is an extraordinary thing that men can be carried off their feet, so to speak, by an intangible thing like this Renaissance. It is hard to find a name by which to call it. It was just a great influence which was to leave its mark on all the arts and crafts, and alter even the very lives of men.
To understand it fully one must realise that hitherto the crafts had been dominated entirely by the Gothic. Men knew no other style. In architecture it had developed from the Norman at the end of the twelfth century, and had become almost a creed, the absolutism of which it were heresy to doubt. It was in fact closely bound up with the church, which had been the seat of learning and the consequent fountain-head of ideas and knowledge ever since the coming of the Normans. Every monastery had its group of stonemasons, carpenters, carvers, and so on.
The carpenters engaged on secular work had only one source from which to draw their ideas, the church, and a man called upon to make, say, a chest simply copied whatever detail he might find in a building, often with the most delightful disregard for its true meaning. Thus one often finds details used in woodwork which belong entirely to the technique of stone masonry.
The point we wish to make clear is that until the coming Tudor Gothic Period
of the Renaissance all the woodwork was entirely Gothic in detail, form, and construction and as a consequence, when new ideas began to filter through, men did not know quite what to make of them, and they became little more than a grafting of Renaissance detail to a groundwork of Gothic.
This will become more obvious when we come to examine individual pieces.
It was a condition that was aggravated by the fact that the early workers did not understand the spirit of the Renaissance. They regarded the details as just so many motifs to be used in any convenient way that suggested itself, and the result was often a curious mixture. It must be remembered that the Renaissance was a thing that filtered through from abroad. It was entirely new. It was not like the Gothic,which was a natural development on lines which were built up on experience. It will be recognised by the use of the
Roman orders of architecture (often wrongly applied), the intricately interwoven strapwork, carved egg and tongue mouldings, and all the many other details that had belonged to Rome in its glory.

OLD CHEST IN CHURCH AT HARBLEDOWN.
Probably 13th century.
The lid is hollowed out of a solid baulk of timber, the curve approximating to that of the tree trunk from which it was cut.
CHEST WITH PIN-HINGED LID.
Probably 15th century.
Although probably made In the fifteenth century, the construction
is typical of an earlier period. All the wood is cleft and finished
with the adze.

FIG. 4. PLANKED CHEST WITH CARVED FRONT
Early 16th century.
This exemplifies the early simple construction in which the front and
back are merely nailed to the sides. The carving is purely Gothic in
character.
FIG. 5. FRAMED-UP CHEST WITH LINENFOLD PANELS.
Early 16th century.
Here the panels are held in the grooves of a framework and are so free to
shrink without danger of their splitting. Compare with chest above.

Art Nouveau Furniture: FRENCH CABINET, ENGLISH HALLROBE, SCOTTISH BOOKCASE, VIENNESE SIDEBOARD, VENEERED CUPBOARD, STAINED-GLASS CABINET, MAHOGANY CABINET, OAK BOOKCASE

ART NOUVEAU
CASE PIECES
THE CABINET CONTINUED to be one
of the most expensive and impressive pieces of useful furniture in European houses. Both decorative and functional, cabinets were used as writing chests, for locking away precious jewels, for storing important papers, and for the display of small, treasured collectables.
Art Nouveau cabinets were made in a variety of styles. The Anglo-Japanese cabinets, such as those designed by E.W Godwin, were embellished with brass mounts and painted decorations.
Charles Rennie Mackintosh, C.EA. Voysey, and E.W Gimson combined simple designs and an attention to the details of fine craftsmanship with
the use of rich timbers, such as oak, walnut, satinwood, and mahogany.
These designers influenced the design of cabinets in the Art Nouveau style in Europe, especially the austere, geometric style favoured in Germany and Austria.
In contrast, French cabinets
were more sensuous in their
design, with Rococo and Oriental elements combined to produce asymmetrically shaped pieces, decorated with curvilinear plant, flower, and vegetable motifs. Louis Majorelle created superbly crafted cabinets of extraordinary luxury, in fine-quality woods. These pieces were often embellished with finely wrought gilt-bronze or wrought-iron mounts, or included decorative inlays of mother-of-pearl or metal.
This elegant cabinet is made of walnut. It is decorated with a marquetry design depicting a clematis and a bird, executed in exotic hardwoods. The top section provides open storage, which is accessed via a rounded
opening, surrounded by relief carving. The piece was made by Louis Majorelle. His sinuous and fluid style, evident here, was inspired by 18th-century Rococo furniture. c.1900.
Carved circular supports
are decorated with
a twisting tendril and root-like design.
The cabinet body is made from walnut
with marquetry in exotic hardwoods.
The marquetry incorporates floral motifs.
FRENCH CABINET

ENGLISH HALLROBE
top of this hallrobe supports Classical carved panels. The panelled front is adorned
stylized copper hinges and handles and
interior is fitted. This piece was made by
the prominent commercial furniture manufacturer, Shapland and Pettey.
SCOTTISH BOOKCASE
This oak bookcase by leading furniture-maker, Wylie and Lochhead of Glasgow, is in the style of the Scottish school. The intricate floral panels are in stained glass and flanked by angular, stylized, copper, repousse panels, all above a long drawer and a bottom cabinet. c.1900.
VIENNESE SIDEBOARD
This impressive walnut veneer sideboard is by the school of Josef Hoffmann. The piece is decorated with intarsia. The symmetrical, clean design is typical of Hoffman and the linear style reveals the influence of Charles Rennie
Mackintosh. The upper section is enclosed behind glazed doors that form a geometric pattern. The mirrored central section is supported by rounded columns. The base has a marble top and contains cupboards and a drawer. The plinth and the handles are made of brass. c.1902.

The straight lines and gentle curves of this cabinet are typical of the Glasgow School, as is the stained-glass window depicting a pastel-coloured flower design. The piece has a broad, projecting cornice, which was a feature of many Glasgow School cabinets.
This walnut veneer and brass dining room cabinet is part of a set by Otto Wytrlik. The matching table, stool, pair of commodes, four armchairs, and two further chairs are solid, dark pieces with strongly geometric lines, and would have given the room a masculine look. c. 1901.
This small, mahogany-veneered cupboard from Austria is raised on four slender legs. The two cupboards, two drawers, and shelves all have nickel fittings. The distinctive top cupboard has three sides of panelled glass with ornamental silver decoration. c.1900.
Anglo-Japanese influences are evident in this mahogany music cabinet decorated with stylized, floral, stained-glass panels. The fine, string ebony and boxwood inlay is enriched with delicate floral carvings. The arched apron is reflected in the curved pediment. c.1895.
STAINED-GLASS CABINET
DINING ROOM
VENEERED CUPBOARD
MUSIC CABINET

INLAID CABINET
This ornate mahogany display cabinet is elaborately inlaid in copper, pewter, and specimen woods with decoration of stylized flower-heads and leafy tendrils. The central panel is mirrored and flanked by two glass doors opening onto glass shelves.
MAHOGANY CABINET
The shaped, raised back, and moulded finials of this highly decorative display cabinet have whiplash-style foliate and floral marquetry inlays. The leaded and stained-glass panel doors are decorated with a floral design, and are enclosed by marquetry panels.
FLORAL CABINET
This mahogany display cabinet, attributed to the Scottish designer Ernest Archibald Taylor, has silver plated repousse decoration on the glass. The architectural form is decorated with a butterfly centrepiece and floral designs in sycamore and tulipwood inlay. c.1903.
OAK BOOKCASE
This bookcase cabinet has a projecting dentil cornice above three open compartments, flanked by pierced decorative brackets. The twin doors, enclosing adjustable shelves, have leaded clear glass panels with stained-glass decoration on the top.

Art Nouveau English Furniture: OCCASIONAL TABLE, TWO-TIER ETAGERE, DISPLAY CABINET, REVIVAL FURNITURE

WHILE SOME EDWARDIAN households
embraced the latest Art Nouveau forms, many returned to the furniture styles of the past and the latest Classical revivals. Designs from various historical periods were dusted off and reworked by companies throughout Britain. Inspiration ranged from the distant past – Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, and even Gothic – to the more recent Neoclassical work of Sheraton, Hepplewhite, and Robert Adam. The result was comfortable rather than cutting-edge, and less cluttered than the Victorian ideal.
Art Nouveau and Revival furniture were made in parallel to satisfy the needs of the less adventurous Edwardians as well as those who subscribed to
the latest fashions.
REVIVAL FURNITURE
The Revival trend had started in the late 19th century after a new series of interior design books, aimed at the middle classes, reignited the fashion for the three great names of British Neoclassical furniture. Then, in 1897, Sheraton’s The Cabinet-Maker and
Upholsterer’s Drawing Book and Hepplewhite’s The Cabinet-Maher and
Upholsterer’s Guide were reprinted and the Revival was confirmed. The result was a fusion of the work of these three designers, adapted to suit smaller
Edwardian rooms and a desire for comfort. It was also a rejection of the heavy, sombre furniture popular in Victorian times.
Revival furniture was often made from light mahogany, satinwood, or satin-birch, and decorated with stringing, crossbanding, and wooden inlays of fans or shells, set with bone, or painted with flowers and foliate scrolls. Decoration was often elaborate. Sometimes pieces were made from less exotic and expensive wood and
painted to resemble satinwood. Some designers slimmed down Sheraton’s designs to make them more delicate. This occasionally went too far and resulted in pieces that were spindly and out of proportion.
Others took the path of true imitation
and aimed to recreate Sheraton and
other Neoclassical designers exactly
Some of these pieces are so faithful to
the original that it takes an expert to tell them apart. Gillow of Lancaster and Edwards and Roberts of London are among the best of these furniture-makers, but many other firms made inexpensive copies for the mass-market. Many pieces were not marked by the makers, so attributing them can be difficult.
A STEADY DEMAND
Despite the volume of furniture made, much Edwardian furniture was of
good quality However, veneers were sometimes used to disguise poor construction. There was a great demand for desks; bookcases; chests-of-drawers; display cabinets; commodes; side, dining, and other chairs; tables including dining, occasional, and dressing; marble-topped washstands; bedside cupboards; and wardrobes that were frequently part of a bedroom suite.
Sofas were often based on Sheraton and Hepplewhite styles, but were less overblown than Victorian examples. Manufacturers made suites of chairs with matching sofas, usually from
mahogany, but sometimes walnut or satinwood. Seats were often upholstered in silk or damask, while the backs and sides were caned.
PRINCIPAL MAKERS
Important names in Edwardian furniture included Waring and Gillow and Maple and Co. Maples was based in Tottenham Court Road, London, and was the largest furniture store in the world. It made its own furniture
for sale at home and abroad, and drew its customers from both the middle and upper classes and even royalty – Tsar Nicholas of Russia furnished his Winter Palace with furniture from its workrooms. Maples also furnished British Embassies, even going so far as to arrange for a grand piano to be carried up the Khyber Pass on packhorses.
For those whose taste did not fit in with either the Revival or Art Nouveau movements, there was an opportunity to furnish their homes in an exotic
manner using the new bamboo and wicker furniture, or pieces with a Moorish or Japanese influence.

SIDE CHAIR
This is one of a pair of Sheraton Revival satinwood side chairs. The pierced, oval back is centred by a portrait of a young girl, and the seat is covered with caning. The front legs are turned. Early 20th century.
SATINWOOD VITRINE
The elegant proportions of this cabinet are characteristic of the Edwardian era, when furniture became more slender and delicate. Influences were diverse, but the painted swag decoration, medallions, and motifs typical of
Glass panels allow treasured objects to be displayed.
Painted swags and medallions are Classically inspired.
The casing and legs are slender and delicate.
the period, are Classical in style. The cornice and pediment are decorated with portrait-style paintings. Vitrines did not become common until the second half of the 19th century. This one bears a label from Maple & Co.
OCCASIONAL TABLE
This circular table is made from mahogany and has satinwood banding and floral marquetry. The square tapered supports are united by stretchers. Early 20th century.

LADY’S WRITING DESK
Probably made by Maple & Co, this rosewood and marquetry compact lady’s writing desk, or bonheur, du jour, has a raised, galleried back with lidded interior compartments. The inset-leather writing surface sits above three frieze drawers and the piece is raised on slender legs. c. 1905.
Elaborate drop handle
Classical inlay motif
ROLLTOP DESK
TWO-TIER ETAGERE
The lid of this satinwood marquetry-decorated piece opens to reveal a mechanical interior. Initially introduced in the 18th century, the rolltop desk was reinterpreted during the Art Nouveau period to meet changing tastes. Early 20th century.
This etagere is made of inlaid mahogany and satinwood banding. The top is formed from a later glass-based tray, and the piece stands on square, swept supports. Etageres were used for displaying objects or serving food.
Early 20th century.
This impressive mahogany cabinet has fine crossbanded decoration and an astragal-glazed door and panels. The cornice is centred with an architectural pediment and the base is decorated with fiddleback mahogany and satinwood lozenges on the central door and canted sides. The cabinet is supported on slender legs. Early 20th century.
DISPLAY CABINET

THE GLASGOW SCHOOL
AT THE HEART of the Art Nouveau
movement in Scotland, the Glasgow School of Art sowed the seeds of an artistic revolution.
The enterprising director, Francis Newberg, and his wife Jessie, were instrumental in taking the Glasgow School of Art beyond its traditional role as an institution for formal
instruction in painting. A great admirer and champion of the teachings of William Morris, Newberg urged his students to learn as much as they could from the Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau movements. He set up art studios where artist-craftsmen provided
broad range of commercial crafts, including bookbinding, woodcarving, ceramics, stained glass, and metalwork.
KEY DESIGNERS
An influential team of designers and architects closely associated with the Glasgow School included Charles Rennie Mackintosh, J. Herbert MacNair, and the sisters Margaret and Frances MacDonald. Known as “The Glasgow Four” or “Four Macs”, they created furniture and interior decoration inspired by Arts and Crafts ideology, but which developed as a movement in its own right and was
“Glasgow Style”. This style incorporated natural imagery together with a strong, psychological identification with the city – then booming economically and culturally – powered by its engineering and industrial skills.
It was a decidedly Scottish and occasionally modest interpretation of the Art Nouveau. Simple, geometric furniture designs were decorated with stylized patterns of flowers, plants, animals, figural patterns, and Celtic-style decoration. These
were shown in unusual colours drawn from local scenery, such as heathery purple, misty greys, and soft green. The Glasgow style won international acclaim, especially at the 8th Secessionist Exhibition in 1900 in Vienna, and exercised a
potent influence on the architects of industrial design in Germany and Austria. The rooms furnished by the group for the 1902 Turin International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts focused on controlled line, eschewing serpentine curves, and favouring symmetrical flowers,
elongated figures, and intricate linear designs in glass, metal, and enamel.
THE ROSE EMBLEM
Nature always inspired the Glasgow Four and was occasionally approached from a scientific perspective. Even the group’s emblem – the two-dimensional rose, which was designed by
Mackintosh and featured frequently on its architecture and furniture – was
inspired by a cabbage cut in half. Other talents associated with the Glasgow School were Ernest Archibald Taylor, lauded for his clean, elegant, and highly refined designs in the style of Charles Rennie Mackintosh; George Walton, with his delicate and subtle designs for furniture, textiles, and glass; and Talwin Morris, who worked in a variety of media, from furniture to textiles, metalwork, and glass.
The Glasgow School of Art This building was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in 1896 and is regarded as one of his most notable architectural achievements.

A Glasgow School hammered brass mirror This piece has a repousse, stylized, floral motif design with long, flowing tendrils ending in a swirl, and a circular bud design with striking blue, enamel.

MAHOGANY CUPBOARD
This inlaid cupboard is made from mahogany and consists of elegant, vertical lines embellished with a projecting and moulded cornice. It is raised on a plinth. In contrast to the simple lines of the piece, the fielded, panelled door is inlaid with florid, geometric, stylized flowers, plant forms, foliage, and stems, and is flanked by similarly inlaid panels.
The moulded hinges and handles are elaborately decorated with foliate motifs. The plinth is pierced at the front and sides with a repeating heart-shaped pattern that echoes the inlaid design. The cupboard was possibly designed by J.S. Henry, a Glasgow wholesale company that often supplied furniture to Liberty and Co. and worked with leading
designers such as George Walton.
HALLSTAND
This hallstand is made of stained oak. It was designed by Wylie and Lochhead and shows the influence of Mackintosh. The moulded cornice above a central bevelled plate is flanked by repouss6 copper panels showing stylized briar roses. Decorative supports in the form of flower stems add to the overall design.