Posts Tagged ‘CURVED’

Globes
Pair of early nineteenth-century mahogany library globes by Newton, published in 1838 and 1836. The tripod frames with out-scrolled legs ending in brass castors, 3 ft 8 in high        780 0
Large pair of terrestrial and celestial globes by Newton; published 25 March 1875. Supported in mahogany frames on triple curving legs 205 0
Pair of terrestrial and celestial globes in turned stands by James
Wyld, Charing Cross East; published 1847 185 0
Knife Boxes
A pair of mahogany urn-shaped knife boxes, stamped W. Johnston, with domed lids and bodies inlaid with flowers and stripes, 2 ft 5 in high 115 0
Sheraton  inlaid  mahogany serpentine-fronted knife box in
original condition 32 0
Mirrors—Mantel
Empire-style giltwood overmantel with triple mirrored panels
and decorated with classical figures 105 0
Rectangular mantel mirror in a giltwood frame carved with
acanthus and shell motifs, 31 in by 25 in 60 0
Mirrors—Toilet or Dressing
Sheraton serpentine-fronted box-frame toilet mirror fitted with
two drawers, 17 in wide 36 0
Sheraton box-frame shield-shape toilet mirror with two drawers,
18 in wide 30 0
Mahogany box-frame toilet mirror with three drawers, 15 in
wide 15 0
Edwardian   mahogany   box-frame   toilet  mirror   with three
drawers to base, 22 in wide 9 0
Mirrors—Wall
Pair of Chinese-Chippendale giltwood girandoles of rococo outline mounted with phoenix-birds and clusters of flowers from which issue two scrolled candle branches. The base enriched with acorns and oak leaves, 38

in high 650 0
Mid-Georgian wall glass in a giltwood frame carved with scrolls
and foliage and pierced, 44 in high 200 0
Chippendale mahogany mirror with gilt gesso beading
George IV convex mirror in a gilt frame enriched with spherical ornament with two scrolled candle sconces. Crested with a gilt eagle with outspread wings 76 0
Regency giltwood convex mirror with ball encrusted moulded
frame and ebonised slip, 1 ft 11 in diameter 15 0
Settees, Couches and Chaise Longues
Small carved mahogany sofa, the arched back carved with
rococo motifs. Curved arms, carved seat rail and cabriole legs        135 0
some auction room prices ‘. 1968-69
Decorated satinwood cane-panelled settee with loose seat
cushion, 4 ft 4 in George III painted settee with flat rectangular back and arms,
on turned legs. The arms, seat rails and legs are painted
with husks and flowers on a cream ground, 6 ft wide Early George III mahogany settee with stuffed back and arms.
The seat rail and legs are carved with blind fret, 5 ft 8 in
wide, (some restoration) Victorian rosewood frame serpentine-fronted chaise longue on
short cabriole legs
Settles
Eighteenth-century oak settle, 5 ft 5 in wide Seventeenth-century panelled oak settle with box seat, 4 ft 6 in wide
Seventeenth-century carved and panelled tall-back hall settle, 5 ft 7 in wide
Sideboards
Small nineteenth-century sideboard inlaid with ebony lines. Raised back, the centre drawer flanked by a cupboard and deep drawer. Supported on six turned and tapering legs, 4 ft 8 in wide
Hepplewhite-style mahogany serpentine sideboard of rich mellow colour, cross-banded in kingwood and fitted with a napery drawer and cellaret cupboards with octagonal gilt metal handles and supported on chamfered

legs, 7 ft 2 in wide
Georgian mahogany half-moon sideboard with two cupboards to the sides and two drawers with lion ring handles in the centre. Four tapering legs, 4 ft wide
Large mahogany Sheraton-style sideboard fitted with two long drawers and flanked by two deep drawers, supported on tapering legs
Regency Empire mahogany sideboard of architectural form, with a reverse breakfront with two shallow drawers to the centre flanked by deep cupboards. Supported by two curved and four simulated bamboo legs

terminating in brass paw feet. The whole mounted with ormolu and brass griffins, lions’ masks and sphinx and with Adams-style garlands and patera, 7 ft 6 in long
Late Georgian mahogany sideboard with shaped front, the top back rail fitted with three tambour slides. Two cupboards and a centre drawer to the base over a waved apron. Supported on six slender tapering legs, 5 ft

7 in wide
Early nineteenth-century mahogany bow-front sideboard on spiral-turned legs, 6 ft 1 in wide
Tables—Break fast
Regency mahogany breakfast table with brass stringing on the banded top and a turned pillar ending in a reeded quadruped, 5 ft by 3 ft 5 in
Georgian mahogany oval breakfast table with reeded edge and
Tables—Card
Chippendale mahogany card table with shaped folding top on boldly carved cabriole legs ending in claw and ball feet, 2 ft 7 in wide 370 0
Late George II mahogany card table with border of carved flowerheads and legs and frieze carved with blind fret, 3 ft wide 250 0
Regency card table in figured rosewood inlaid with brass flowers and leaves, the D-top on a ringed stem and quadruple brass capped legs, 3 ft wide 190 0
Sheraton mahogany card table inlaid with satinwood lines and
on tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 180 0
George II walnut card table with rectangular top on turned legs
with mantled knees and club feet, 3 ft wide 95 0
Regency mahogany card table with green baize interior on curving quadruple support, ending in brass claw feet. The top is cross-banded 65 0
Victorian mahogany card table with double Sap top supported
on four tapering shafts, terminating in curved legs 44 0
Tables—Centre
Regency painted centre tabic, the circular top simulating green marble, the border with brass mouldings hinged to a carved turned central support on a curved triangular base with lion’s paw feet, 4 ft diameter 120 0
Edwards and Roberts eboniscd centre table with ormolu beading on cluster column and quadruple base, 5 ft 6 in wide 38 0
Red Buhl shaped centre table with heavy ormolu mounts, two
drawers and on cabriole legs. (Poor condition) 11 0
Tables—Dining
Charles I oak dining table with a triple-plank top and the frieze carved with leaves and interlaced arcading, on column legs, 6 ft 5 in long by 2 ft 7 in wide 360 0
Large late George III mahogany dining table, the top richly carved with acanthus, ribbon motifs, satyr masks and a coat of arms. Supported on ten tapering spiral-twist legs with five loose leaves, 12 ft 4 in long 185 0
Georgian mahogany two pillar dining table with triple curving
legs ending in brass-capped feet 122 0
Georgian mahogany oval drop-leaf dining table on turned legs
and pad feet 75 0
Eighteenth-century mahogany oval drop-leaf cottage dining table
on taper legs with pad feet, 3 ft 6 in wide 44 0
Mahogany gadrooned oval dining table with cabriole legs and
claw and ball feet 40 0
Georgian mahogany drum library table with leather top and four real and four dummy drawers. On triple curving legs with brass-capped feet, 3 ft 3 in diameter 680 0
some auction room prices : 1968-69
George III mahogany library table fitted with seven drawers and dummy drawers with gilt metal lion ring handles, the top with gilt tooled green leather and the whole raised on a curved quadruple support with

brass-capped feet
Tables—Games and Sewing
Eighteenth-century mahogany, shaped folding top, games table on nutcracker frame with cabriole legs and claw and ball feet, 34 in wide
William IV games table with sliding and reversible top inlaid as a chess board opening to reveal a backgammon board with two drawers to the side. Central pillar supported on quadruple curving feet
Nineteenth-century mahogany sewing table with rising top and drawers below. The slender tapering legs ending in brass-capped feet
Tables—Gate-leg
George I elmwood gate-leg table, the oval top with flaps on
cabriole legs carved with scrolls and leaves and ending in
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 9 in wide Seventeenth-century oak oval gate-leg dining table with double
flaps supported on bobbin turned legs with plain cross
stretchers, 4 ft 9 in wide Late George II mahogany gate-leg table, the oval top with two
flaps, on unusual legs fluted and ending in paw feet, 3 ft 9 in
wide
Oak oval gate-leg table on turned underframe with drawer, 4 ft wide
Tables—Occasional
Late George II mahogany piecrust table with bird-cage support on fluted stem with carved legs and claw and ball feet, 2 ft 2 in diameter
Large mahogany piecrust tripod table with baluster stem and
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 5 in diameter Mahogany tripod table, the circular top with raised rim, on
cabriole feet, 1 ft 10 in diameter
Tables—Pembroke
Late Georgian mahogany oval Pembroke table with drawer, on
square tapering legs, 2 ft 7 in wide by 3 ft 6 in long Late Georgian mahogany Pembroke table painted with a floral
border and on turned and fluted legs Georgian mahogany Pembroke table with folding flaps and
single drawer, inlaid with satinwood lines and fan motifs, on
tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide
Tables—Refectory
Seventeenth-century oak refectory table of slender plain form, the base having square ends united by a single stretcher, 7 ft 3 in long
Oak refectory table on bulbous end supports with central
stretcher, 7 ft 7 in by 3 ft wide 130 0
An exceptionally long oak refectory table with triple curving
supports, 18 ft 6 in long, 3 ft 3 in wide 90 0
Tables—Side
Queen Anne banded walnut side table with two deep and two
shallow drawers on square legs, 3 ft 3 in wide 170 0
Chinese-Chippendale mahogany side table, the frieze carved with
blind fret. Moulded legs, 3 ft wide 88 0
Oak side table with drawer, on turned legs, 3 ft wide 64 0
Walnutwood side table with cabriole legs carved with acanthus
leaves 31 0
Tables—Sofa
George III satinwood sofa table cross-banded with acacia, fitted with two drawers and false drawers opposite on trestle supports with splayed curved feet and brass castors, 2 ft 10 in wide        750 0
Regency banded mahogany sofa table with tulipwood stringing with two drawers on end supports and central stretcher with brass claw feet, 5 ft 10 in extended 380 0
Late George III mahogany sofa table with two drawers in frieze and raised on flat trestle supports with out-curved legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 270 0
George III mahogany sofa table banded in rosewood and with two drawers. It has trestle supports with tripod splayed legs and brass feet, 3 ft wide 250 0
Tables—Sutherland
Mahogany Sutherland table on turned underframe, 2 ft 9 in
wide 42 0
Victorian walnut-veneered Sutherland table on turned supports,
2 ft 6 in wide 36 0
Tables—Tea
Regency mahogany tea table with folding top on a turned pillar and four curved legs, the whole inlaid with brass stringing, 3 ft wide 120 0
Late George II mahogany tea table, the top with a border of flowerheads and ribbon and the frieze and chamfered legs carved with Chinese blind fret, 3 ft wide 60 0
George III mahogany tea table with folding top, a drawer in
the frieze and square tapering legs, 3 ft 8 in wide 38 0
Tables—Wine
Hepplewhite mahogany wine table, the inlaid octagonal top
supported on triple concave curving legs 105 0
Victorian mahogany wine table on pillar and tripod base, 21 in
diameter 10 0
Tables—Writing
George III mahogany pedestal writing table, the gilt tooled leather top with three drawers at each side of the frieze and
the pedestals with cupboards and drawers at either end, 4 ft wide
Early eighteenth-century banded fruitwood writing table, fitted
with three drawers, a shaped apron and on cabriole legs with
pad feet, 2 ft 4 in wide Victorian lady’s mahogany writing table with two short drawers
on lyre end supports, 3 ft wide Carved mahogany writing table with fitted drawer, the top lined
with leather, on cabriole legs, 2 ft 5 in wide
Tallboys and Lowboys
George II walnut tallboy, the top with reeded and canted corners and three small and three long drawers. The base having three long drawers and bracket feet
Queen Anne small walnut tallboy of mellow colour, the upper chest fitted with two small and three long drawers over a brushing slide, and three long graduated drawers
William and Mary lowboy inlaid with scrolls and motifs. The top fitted with two small and two long drawers and two long drawers to the base, 4 ft 3 in high
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice and two small and three long drawers to the top and tliree long drawers to the base which is supported on bracket feet
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice, the top fitted with two small and three long drawers, the base with three long drawers and supported on bracket feet, 6 ft 1 in high
Waiters
Mid-Georgian mahogany dumb waiter with turned and carved columns supporting three trays. The whole on cabriole tripod feet, 4 ft high
George III mahogany dumb waiter with two revolving tiers and baluster centre on three curved and moulded legs and castor feet applied with roundels, 3 ft 2 in high
George II mahogany dumb waiter with three graduated revolving tiers and spiral fluting on turned central support. Plain cabriole legs, 3 ft 6 in high
Wardrobes
Mahogany breakfront wardrobe fitted with sliding trays, four
drawers and panelled cupboards Small Georgian mahogany wardrobe enclosed by two panelled
doors with three drawers in the base, 3 ft 9 in wide George III mahogany gents wardrobe with pierced swan-neck
cresting, a pair of doors banded in satinwood and two short
and two long drawers below, 7 ft high by 4 ft 4 in wide Regency mahogany wardrobe the upper part with sliding trays
with four drawers under on splay feet, 3 ft 11 in wide
Washstands
Late George III mahogany washstand, the top hinged and opening to form a back, the front with a pair of cupboard doors above one small drawer, on square splayed legs, 2 ft wide
Edwardian three-tier corner washstand with basin 18 0 George III mahogany corner washstand, the slender legs joined
by a stretcher with a drawer, 2 ft wide                                      14 0
Wine Coolers
Georgian inlaid mahogany sarcophagus wine cooler with lion
mask and ring handle on paw feet 65 0
Georgian mahogany octagonal wine cooler with lifting top and
short square moulded legs, 18 in wide 55 0

FILLERS AND CEMENTS
Fillers and cements arc used for the repair of china, glass, wood and occasionally metal. Adhesives are also used as fillers and cements, with the addition of a little colouring matter or powder to give them colour, body or both.
Plastic Padding. Described in the section on adhesives, this makes a useful filler for metalwork because of its colour, and it needs no further additives for this work. It is not usually used for china restoration work.
Wood fillers. There are several makes of plastic wood which are used as fillers for small holes in woodwork.
Wood filling compounds of various kinds and in various colours can be bought, in proprietary brands, and these are tenacious and excellent. When dry, fillers can be sanded to a smooth finish. Epoxy resin fillers such as Araldite, suitably coloured with dry powder pigments or oil paints, can be used as fillers for rebuilding small missing sections of woodwork. The slow drying of sonic types
makes them rather difficult to use, and care must be taken that, in larger repairs, shrinkage does not leave hair cracks between the new pieces and the old.
Various compounds are used for filling, and making casts and pressed moulds, and for modelling new pieces where it is not possible to make moulds.
Bondapaste. This is an excellent adhesive filler which can be built up on itself in layers, and when hard can be worked with files and gravers. It is a good filler and cement for china restoration needing no additive. It dries quickly so any moulding or modelling must be done fast.
Isopon. This is a paste filler which is mixed with a hardener. It dries quickly and doesn’t shrink under heat, and it needs no parting agent to separate it from the mould. It can be fined and abraded with glass paper and other abrasives. It sticks to itself so it can be used in layers, but it does not stick to china, so after hardening and removal of the mould, it must be stuck to the china with Araldite, exactly as if it were an ordinary broken piece. It can only be worked for about ten minutes before it becomes too tacky, but this is an advantage when you are fairly practised and it can be used for quite large pieces without internal support as it sets fast, so will not sag so readily as a slower setting filler. The fact that it will not adhere to plasticine also allows props and pads of plasticine to be used to support it while it is drying.
Plaster of Paris. Widely used for the making of moulds, it is quick drying and easy to handle, but it is not suitable by itself as a filler, being too soft and porous.
Seccotine with dental plaster. A hard setting adhesive mixture which is very useful for small repairs to gesso where the object is never going to come into contact with water.
Cascantite with dental plaster. Another good mixture, which can be cut and shaped with woodworking tools, provided it has not dried out completely (see Adhesives for details of Cascamite). It has the disadvantage that it must be stuck into place as it is not self-adhesive. It is most useful for filling Alabaster which it matches perfectly.
Araldite. The two tube epoxy resin adhesive described in the section on Adhesives is the most versatile filler, having but two disadvantages. It is rather sticky to use, and it dries very slowly so cannot be used for large unsupported pieces. However, it sticks so well to the object being mended, and, when set, it approaches so closely the appearance of biscuit china, that many restorers prefer it to the quicker setting compounds. It can be mixed with whitening, or kaolin or titanium dioxide to make a filler for china. Mixed with these same materials, it is also an excellent cement for use when dowelling.
Sawdust, stone powder, metallic powder, colouring pigments, either dry powder or oil paint, will all mix with Araldite to simulate almost anything you like to name.
will
It blend and adhere to the whole piece and strengthen it enormously. In the old days, plaster of Paris was used for this kind of building and restoration, but it was not strong or waterproof, whereas epoxy resins are both. Ali example mentioned in the section oil Aniis and Armour is the building up of an old worm-eaten gunstock with epoxy resins coloured to match. It can be injected by hypodermic syringe into wooden holes or cracks where it will strengthen and preserve. Unfortunately it will not take a very high Polish which may limit its use.
Fillers for Glasswork. Modern acrylic resins, which are usually powders with which a liquid is mixed, are ideal for glass restoration and repair, as if mixed with care so that there are no air bubbles present, they set to a trans- parent, very slightly yellow material which is as near to glass as you can get. Acrylic resins call be coloured with dry powder pigments to simulate coloured glass or china, and sonic can be bought already coloured.
Tensol Cement No. 7 and Aertilite Cold Curing Resin are two excellent products in this range. his is another versatile acrylic resin mentioned several times in this book. It can be used, mixed fairly thinly, to coat things made from cane or wickerwork to strengthen or preserve them, and to mend glass or certain types of china. With care it can be mixed with dry powder pigments to simulate jasper (`Wedgwood’) ware. Acrylics are not particularly difficult to handle, and in fact they are great fun to experiment with. They make excellent solid `glass cases’ for small objects which you wish to preserve. The technique for doing this is not within the scope of this book, but it is easy enough to work out for yourself, bearing in mind normal casting techniques!
Use acrylics according to makers’ instructions in so far as mixing etc. is concerned.
Gilder’s Coinpo. Invented by the Adam brothers, it has ever since been used for all kinds of moulding work instead of woodcarving, and is still a most excellent material for repairing moulded picture frames or some types of nioulding on furniture and fittings.
Recipe I.
i lb. Scotch glue 2 lbs. resin
i gill real turpentine T pint linseed oil whiting
Dissolve die glue in a gallon of water. Boil the resin, the turpentine and the oil together, and then add to the glue and water. Boil the whole lot together until the liquid has reduced a little, so that the mixture is not too runny. Add this to the whiting powder in a bucket, stirring constantly until the whole has the consistency of dough.Boil all the ingredients together for half an hour, and then add to a bucket containing whiting, rather as one adds milk and eggs to a bowl of flour when making batter. Mix until the compo has the consistency of dough.
FLY MARKS
Fly marks call be scratched offmany objects with a sharp knife or even with the point of a needle. Chalk mixed with a little ammonia will remove fly blows from a hard surface such as stone. Fly blows on glass or any surface which will
can
not be damaged by it ca be removed by washing with a five per cent solution of caustic soda, followed by rinsing. Solvents such as petrol or benzine will remove fly marks, but will also remove varnish, so be careful.
Fly marks on prints call sometimes be removed by alternate baths of ]lot and cold water in that order, and then drying out between pieces of blotting paper.
FRAMES
Painting and Texturing. Picture frames come in all shapes and sizes, complicated and simple, and there are just as many techniques for restoring and renovating them. They can be cleaned and painted with varnish or matching paint, gilded, given two-tone or antique finishes, textured or spattered. It depends a great deal on the type of frame which of these methods is used, and also oil the picture, which could well be killed by all over-weight frame or one coloured incorrectly. The frame should never be lighter in colour than the lightest part of the painting. Don’t put a white frame round a picture which does not contain white. If the frame is too glossy, the highlights distract the eye from the picture itself. Frames can also be made into trays, by adding a suitable centre, or into mirrors. Frames for watercolours, pastels, or photographs, which have glasses, should be as simple as possible so as not to overpower the picture.
First clean the frame thoroughly. Oil a simple wooden one, detergent, water and sandpaper all carefully used should remove old grease and grime. While the frame is drying, the type of repainting or decoration ion can be decided upon. If it is a plain frame in good condition, a light rub down with a fine grade of sandpaper will probably be all that is needed before a new coat of varnish is applied. Of course the varnish call be taken off, and the frame left in its natural wood state and just lightly rubbed with wax Polish, but if the old surface is stained or badly scratched, the new coat must be opaque, and some kind of paint is the answer. Ordinary household paint or plastic emulsion in a suitable colour looks quite well, but with a little more trouble, really exciting finishes call be obtained, and in most cases a broken finish definitely  looks best.
Polymer colour water based paints made either by Rowney under the trade name of Cryla, or by Reeves under the name of Polymer colours, are particularly useful, as they can be applied very thinly producing a pickled effect over stained wood, or else thick as squeezed from the tube, and then figured, or used for two-tone work. Polymer paints contain water and should be water thinned to the required consistency, not with turps or white spirit. They dry very rapidly, but if you want to slow down the process, use the special retarder. The colours, which conic ili the full range of artist’s oil paint colours, mix very well, and when dry will have a slight sheen, which is excellent for frames. A gloss medium is obtainable, or, although it is not really necessary as the paint is quite waterproof when dry, it can be overpainted with a polymer varnish to keep the frame in first class condition for years. Any tools or brushes used to apply the polymer paints should be washed thoroughly in water before they dry out, but if this is forgotten, a soaking overnight iii methylated spirit will the trick. Acetone will also dissolve these colours.
Texturing with polymer colours is not too difficult. The paint should have the consistency of thick cream. It should be painted on to the frame fairly thickly and, while it is still sticky, textured with a comb, toothbrush, an old wire brush, or anything else you caii think of that would scrape interesting patterns in the paint. A little practice on an odd scrap of wood painted with polymer, will give you some idea of texturing. Another method is to put oil different coloured layers of polymer, letting each one dry before adding rile next, and cut through these with varying pressures to get the colours showing through at different levels. Diagonal, cross, mitre or lengthwise strokes can be used, and if you get really ambitious, all sorts of curved lines and squiggles. Another way of texturing is to paint the frame with polymer, and then while it is still sticky, sprinkle on a little sand, or rice, or any other small hard grained substance, shake off the surplus, and when dry overpaint with another thinner layer of polymer, and then finish with polymer varnish. A small sponge gently pressed into sticky paint will also give an interesting finish, especially if the two-tone effect is desired, using a double layer of paint. Spattering gives a nice spotty effect and should be applied over the plain basic colour oil the frame by gently tapping a water paint brush loaded with the colour you want to apply. To make large spots hold the brush near the surface, and with a little experimentation the size of the spots can easily be adjusted.
One very useful process for finishing off plain frames or parts of ornamental ones is to rub on colour. This gives a nice soft finish and it is particularly good for insets, which can look far too hard and glaring against a light toned picture. Any oil based paint call be used and a handkerchief should be lightly smeared with this, and then the surplus paint rubbed off on an old piece of newspaper. The lightly charged cloth is rubbed gently 01, the frame, and the pressure increased until the right effect is obtained. The cloth should be recharged as necessary, but never too much as the more sparingly paint is applied tile softer tile finish will look, and it is not necessary to work it in too evenly. Burnt sienna is a particularly good colour for insets. If you want a simple gilded effect a paste made by Reeves called Restoration or an American product called Treasure Wax Gilt do an excellent job. They come in many roues of gold, bronze or silver, and are very easily applied with a cloth or finger oil to tile cleaned surface. If a bright finish is required, it should be put on fairly thickly and allowed to dry completely before being rubbed down with a soft cloth. This method is by far the best way to touch up any old gilding as the application of gold leaf is really an expert’s job (see Gilding).
heavy piece of chain, are common enough practices with disreputable dealers, but any old frame bought in a junk shop will probably have enough natural blemishes to make this unnecessary, and it all sounds rather too violent. Applications of different paints can make almost any frame look a lot older mid more interesting than it really is. Coats of paint are rubbed oil in, irregular patches and then smoothed down lightly with fine sandpaper. Deep depressions can be left dark, and bright colours should be put on sparingly. Yellow ochre, chrome yellow, raw uniber, venetian red and bumf sienlia, are all suitable colours, and when they have dried out and been sanded down, a thin coat of burnt sienna diluted with turpentine is overpainted, and later spots of gold or silver Restoration or Treasure Gilt call be rubbed oil in small areas, or tile whole frame spattered. The effect of old gold leaf call be obtained by painting the frame with a thick layer of venetian red, and then repainting with a good quality bronze paint such as Treasure Gold Liquid Leaf When it is dry, it should be rubbed with steel wool until the red shows through in places. Restoration wax call be used instead of the bronze paint, just put on rather unevenly, but it must be remembered that genuine gold leaf gets rubbed off in natural wear and tear on the raised surfaces, while tile depressions will keep the gold, and it is not so easy to get a natural finish without any rubbing off.
Mending. Old picture frames get pretty knocked about in junk shops, especially when tile pictures have been removed and tile glass broken. Usually it is the corners which go, the whole frame wringing in all directions. Corners can be strengthened quite easily (see Fig. 17)_ If the glue and the tacks which secure the frame have gone, take the frame to pieces, and remove the remains of the tacks and clean off  Sand the faces of the comers down to the natural wood, so that you have a clean surface to work on, and then put an impact adhesive, on both faces of the comers and leave it for the time specified by its makers before bringing the two faces together. In order to get good right-angled corners, use a comer cramp. These c.-ui be bought at hardware stores and arc so useful that I really do suggest that you get one and do not try to square the comer any other way, although it can be done. One method is to work with the frame on its face. Put the two faces together and square the comer using a try square to measure it and then tack a thin piece of wood diagonally across, so that the frame is held rigid until the join has set. This will hold the corners accurately, but will not put any tension on the join. To hold the comer, in addition to the adhesive, drive tacks in diagonally across the join, making sure that you don’t use tacks so long that they come right and also try to get them into the through the other side, and
thickest section of the frame. Small holes can be drilled across the corner, and a woodc’, peg inserted. If you mean to do this, it is best to drill the hole with the frame held tight in the corner cramp, before putting on the glue.
If it is not possible to mend the frame iri this way, or if you do not want to dismantle it entirely, the corners can be dowelled, or a plate can be screwed on to the corners, at the back. Depending on how big and heavy the frame is, put in a strip or triangular corner plate (see Fig. 17). If a strip is used, sink it into the frame by cutting right across the corner to the depth of the strip with a tenon saw, and then chipping out the piece with a chisel. Wooden strips and plates are better than metal ones, and plywood is fine for the job.
If you wish to make a frame smaller, this can be done without separating all the covers. Measure opposite sides to the correct lengths, at opposite ends, then cut through the two corners using a mitre box, and rejoin (see Fig. 18). When measuring frames, always remember that the edge of the frame overlaps the glass and the picture, and that you must allow for this when measuring. It is easier to measure your picture and/or glass, and then measure the frame at the inside edge of the rebate which takes the picture.
Mending Mouldhnq. If the plaster moulding of a picture franc is really badly damaged, you can always strip it all off and just use the basic wooden frame. A power drill with a rough sanding disc will take off a lot of the old plaster quickly, but some of the awkward angles will have to be done with a hand scraper.
Clean all mouldings with a hog’s hair paint brush, a sponge mid methylated spirit. Never make a frame too wet or the plaster may dissolve.
plaster mouldings are all too often broken off in great lumps. Replace these quite simply by making a moulding from an identical, but unbroken section of the frame. This is done in the same way as pressed moulding for china (see Fig. rg). Make a mould with Plasticine for small sections, and then cast a piece by pouring plaster of Paris in the mould, or preferably for small sections by making a filler with Araldite mixed with kaolin powder (use a parting agent in this case), or Cascamite and dental plaster, and pressing this into the mould. The pressing is allowed to harden and then, before it is so hard that it will not stick, is carefully put in place on the break. A little straight Araldite adhesive on the face of the broken part will help adhesion. To make a mould of a large section, or one which has any undercutting which would hook round a plasticiric pressing, use dental impressioncompound (Paribar) and make a pressed mould with this, first greasing the moulding with vaseline. Paribar can be reused many times, and no parting agents are needed before putting in
the plaster of Paris filler.
Gilder’s Compo can be used (see Fillers) and this is recommended for extensive work. It has many other uses for moulding of all kinds and is the traditional material—superseded, but not necessarily improved upon, by plastics and resins.
The mouldings can also be made in Isopon or Bondapaste filler, which dries much more quickly than Aralditc. It is a matter of personal preference, really. All these materials make mouldings which when set can be cleaned tip with needle files and abraded with glass paper until they are satisfactorily smooth.
ruler with a bevel edge and a Stanley knife (see Tools), and cut the board with a bevel. Special mat trimmers can be bought from artists’ suppliers. The secret is to cut the bevel the same all the way round and to get the comers neat. The knife must be perfectly sharp. It is difficult to stop the ruler from slipping about, and a strip of very fine sandpaper stuck oil will the bottom of it wihelp. The bevel edge can be gilded if liked.
The mat is placed oil the picture, which in turn has been put on a mount which is bigger than the hole in the mat. Photographic mountant is excellent for this job, either the paste type, or, if there is no danger involved in heating your picture, the type which is painted on with a brush and then bonded by pressure with a warm iron.
Mounts arc just pieces of cart{    which the picture is stuck; the mount being big enough to fit the frame exactly.
Linings are rather more complex, and call be most effective, both for bringing a frame down in size, and for making a picture look better. A lining may be just a strip of gilded wood inside the main frame, or it may be a wider inner frame covered with material such as linen or velvet or sheet metal. The wood inner frame is made exactly to fit the rebates of the main frame, and is mitred at the corners. The covering material may be stuck or pinned to the lining. In order to make a neat job at the corners, it is usually best to cover the pieces before joining them.
One last word—always check wire, cord and screws used for hanging up pictures—more often than not the wire is rusted, the string is rotten, and screw rings are rusted or loose. It call be a little disappointing if two weeks later all your hard work oil painting, moulding and mending together with that expensive piece of glass end up in a shattered heap on the floor.

CHAIRS AND STOOLS
The chair as we left it in our chapter on Jacobean work was still a sturdily built piece of work though tending to
DETAILS OF THE CONSTRUCTION DRAWING, FIG. 74.
A. Queen Anne tallboy made in two separate parts.
B. Section through the built-up cross-grained cornice.
C. How thin oak back is fixed on.
D. Side viewof drawer showing dovetails.
E. Cut -away view with construction of carcase and drawer.
become lighter. A few were made with stuffed seats, and occasionally upholstered backs were added, but for the most part they were entirely of wood—or possibly were fitted with a leather seat stretched over the rails. This, though being softer than wood, could hardly be called upholstery.
After the middle of the century there arose a custom of using cane for the better type of chair back, and rushes for the commoner type. Upholstery, too, was used, though this did not become really popular until the reign of William and Mary. We may mention here that springs were never used. As a matter of passing interest, it was not until the nineteenth century that these came into use.
Twist Turning.—Caning is usually associated with the tall-back chairs which became popular during the second half of the seventeenth century, and this brings us to an interesting development, that of twist turning. Until about1625 or so only plain, straightforward turning had been attempted. The work was mounted in a curious contrivance known as the pole lathe, over which a long springy pole (hence the name) was suspended from a bracket in the wall. To the end of the pole was fixed a rope which stretched down to a drum attached to the chuck. It was taken a turn around

this and then down to a treadle. Thus when the operator depressed the treadle the work was revolved in a forward motion and the pole above was bent downwards. When the pressure on the treadle was released the pole sprang back, turning the work in the opposite direction.
It is obvious from this that the actual cutting could be done whilst the work was revolving forwards only, and when one considers the toughness of English oak, and the large size in which many of the old bulbous turnings were made, it is not surpri3ing that the turners did not go in a great deal for experiment. However, some ingenious craftsman, probably noticing the spiral made by his gouge as he passed it rapidly along the surface, did try his hand at forming a spiral or twist, and by a combination of pre-

liminary sawing out, rough turning, and use of carving tools to finish off, produced a rather uneven sort of twist.
It was not an easy business, however, one of the chief difficulties being that of making the same number of twists on each of a set of legs, and as a consequence twist turning did not make a great deal of progress until someone thought of making an attachment which would carry the gouge along sideways at a predetermined rate, which was set in accordance with the rate of revolutions of the work. In this way any number of turnings could be made, all exactly alike. There still are a few of these old pole lathes in use in the outlying districts of Buckinghamshire, where turnings for chairs are still made on a large scale.
A chair with twist turnings was given in Fig. 64 on p. 82, and in this we see the passing out of the old oak tradition. Chair making suffered something of a decline in the third quarter of the seventeenth century, at any rate from the point of view of construction. Instead of the seat rails being strongly tenoned between the legs, they were merely placed on top with no stronger attachment than a dowel

turned at the top of the legs. The same thing applied to the top rail of the back, which was simply fitted to dowels at the ends of the uprights. This detail is shown clearly in the chair in Fig. 75, though in this case the front seat rail is still tenoned between the legs.
This chair is fairly typical of the tall-back which persisted until the end of the seventeenth century. Turning was used considerably, even for the tops of the shaped front legs, and it is interesting to note that the back legs splay backwards. Even the early tall-backs did not have this detail, and if ever it were essential in any chair it was in one which was essentially lightly built and had a high back. For a man to lean back even slightly would be dangerous.

The legs are interesting in that they foreshadow the cabriole leg which was shortly to become popular, though when examined closely it is seen that they consist actually of a number of scrolls joined together with floral and leaf carving. Scroll work of this kind was used widely in chairs and stands of all kinds. It is seen in the front stretcher rail and in the back of that in Fig. 75.
Chairs with Cabriole Legs.—The introduction of the cabriole leg seemed to strike a new note in the design of chairs. It was not simply that a new motif was being used, but that the whole conception of the design became altered. Compare, for example, the two chairs on p. 98. It is obvious that the one has turned uprights whilst the other has shaped ones, but, in addition, there is an entirely new spirit in that in Fig. 76. In the earlier example, Fig. 75, one is conscious of a series of parts jointed together in an obvious sort of way. It is not suggested that this is a fault, but simply that the construction is at once apparent. One can count up the parts—two uprights, cresting rail, lower rail, seat rail, stretcher, and so on. And the earlier the chair the more obvious the parts and their purpose becomes.
Now turn to Fig. 76. It is not easy to see where the uprights and the top rail of the back begin and end. They merge one into the other, and the same thing applies to the slat and the rail beneath. The back is one whole, so to speak, and we shall find that this feeling becomes still more apparent in later chairs.
Reverting to the legs again, these are an early form of the cabriole type, and exemplify the Dutch influence which the accession of William of Orange brought with it. The probability is that many of these chairs were the work of foreign craftsmen who settled down here. A cabriole leg is by no means an easy thing to make, and it is doubtful whether a native craftsman could have turned out a really fine shape without previous experience. The awkward point about making the leg is that it is difficult to set down the true shape on paper. It can be drawn at the front, side, and possibly three-quarter positions, but the actual leg is seen from all angles and is normally viewed from above, a viewpoint which the drawing does not present.
Furthermore, in the very nature of the work the guiding lines on the wood are cut away as the work proceeds,

because the whole thing is more or less rounded in section. In actual practice the leg is cut out of a square right through to the over-all shape when looked at from the front. A corresponding shape is cut at the side, this producing a square cut shape. The point to realise is that the cutting

of the first shape automatically removes the lines of the second shape, and it is only by temporarily replacing the sawn-away parts that the shape can be cut true. In any case the resulting shape has only a distant resemblance to the finished line, and it is in the final shaping that experience is needed, because there are no square lines to which to work. Everything is curved in both directions, and it is only by eye that a really fine shape can be produced, one which looks well when seen from every angle. The whole thing is complicated when carving is to appear, because sufficient thickness has to be allowed for this, and the presence of these plain lumps is apt, to give a false impression of the shape as a whole.
We have gone into these practical points at some length because the cabriole leg became so characteristic a feature of

furniture for the following seventy-five years or so. Really fine legs are few and far between, the majority being overdone in the shape, and we shall find that they deteriorated considerably after Queen Anne’s reign until rescued by the school of Chippendale.
In the present instance, Fig. 76, it will be noticed that the legs terminate in a hoof foot, whilst at the top the sides are scrolled in imitation of the horns of the goat. These details are often found in William and Mary furniture, after which they gave place to the turned club foot, with which we shall meet in the next example. In the meantime it should be noted that the legs are still linked together with stretcher rails. It is true that the last-named are on an altogether lighter scale than in earlier pieces (see Fig. 64) and are gracefully shaped, but the chairmaker has not yet felt confident enough to omit them entirely, which was the next stage in the development of the chair.
Another feature of the chair in Fig. 76 met with for the first time is the curve in the rake of the back, and it is interesting to glance at the diagram in Fig. 78, which shows the various stages of development. There is the earliest straight post (J) cut from a square of timber and continuing from leg to back in a straight line. This was used mostly in the old settles of Gothic times (see Fig. 14, p. 23). Then came the idea of setting the back at an angle (K), a phase which lasted until past the middle of the seventeenth century. An example is given in Fig. 37, P. SO. In the same period in a few chairs little blocks were added at the bottom as at L to help to counterbalance the weight. This is exemplified in Fig. 18, P. 25. Next, the legs were at last splayed as at M, though the back still remained straight without any curve (see Fig. 65, P. 82). N gives the next development, as in the chair in Fig. 76, whilst 0 shows the shape which the majority of chairs in the later eighteenth century had, of which Fig. 102 is an example.
A last point to note about the chair in Fig. 76 is the shaped splat. This was something quite fresh (see last example in Fig. 75), and had certain definite stages in development. It is shown in the armchair in Fig. 77 in its most characteristic form. Apart from its shaped edges it follows the general line of the back when viewed from the side.
These two chairs in Fig. 77 exemplify the walnut period in its fullest stage of development in the Queen Anne period. That to the left is especially characteristic in the shape of the back, the splat, and the full cabriole legs with turned club feet. Note that the back is appreciably lower and that the shaping of the uprights has become more pronounced, especially in the rounded shape at the top. The splat, too, is entirely solid and has an urn-like formation.
The fact that the backs were shaped in both front and side elevations made them extremely expensive to produce, and it was for this reason that the square back type to the right in Fig. 77 was made for a more economical job. The uprights merely taper and they are quite straight in their rake. In the best chairs, however, the full shaping was given, and on some models the back was entirely veneered with cross-grain walnut. Another feature to note is the entire absence of stretcher rails.
Just as the development in the shape of the rake of the
.
back can be followed in a series of stages, so the plain shape of the seats developed on certain characteristic lines. These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 78, from the square boxlike formation of early Tudor times to the tapering shape of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and the elaborately shaped seats of walnut furniture. Later on there was a return to the simpler form.

One other innovation in the walnut period in connection with the seats was the loose drop-in variety shown in Fig. 77

to the right. These were not used exclusively, the ” stuff-over ” method (left in Fig. 77) being also used frequently.
The development of upholstery has already been mentioned, and in Fig. 79 we have the fully upholstered arm-chair of about 1705. The projecting wings and the scrolled arms are especially characteristic, and bear out the prevailing popularity of shaped work.
.
Stools.—The two stools in Fig. 8o are of the William and Mary (left) and Queen Anne (right) periods. In the earlier specimens the legs are actually turned, and the scrolled and recessed detail is carved out of the shape. The shaped stretchers are similar to those already shown in the chest of drawers in Fig. 70, except that the edges are moulded instead of being square. In the Queen Anne stool the stretchers are omitted. The legs are worth noting in that they terminate with spade feet. These are carved out entirely, no turning being used. Other features often found are the shell carving on the knee with the pendant husks below, and the scrolls at the sides immediately beneath the ears.
The day-bed in the form shown in Fig. 67, P. 84, did not last into the eighteenth century. Its place was taken by the settee, which was rather like two or more chairs joined together side by side. There was sometimes a centre leg, though it was frequently omitted.

FIG. 75. TALL-BACK CHAIR WITH UPHOLSTERED SEAT.
Late 17th century.
Note that the top back rail is simply pegged to the turned uprights. The legs which are suggestive of the cabriole shape are in reality a series of scrolls.
FIG.76. WILLIAM AND MARY
CHAIR.
Late 17th century.
The back shows the hoop form in its embryo stage. It has the appearance of a complete thing in itself instead of consisting of uprights, cross rails and slats as in Fig. 75 above.
The legs have the hoof foot and scrolled ears In Imitation of the goat’s horns.

FIG. 77. WALNUT CHAIRS WITH CABRIOLE LEGS AND CLUB FEET.
Early 18th century.
The left-hand example exemplifies the development of double shaped work in
the hooped back. In the less expensive chair to the right the back is raked only,
with no shaping at the front. Note the use of the urn-shaped splat in both
examples.

FIG. 79. UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR.
Early i8th century.
Although thickly padded, these chairs were
never fitted with springs. The last named
belong to the 19th century.

FIG. 80. STOOLS OF THE WALNUT PERIOD.
Late 17th century.    Early z8th century.
The legs of the left-hand stool are turned and the carving is cut into the turning.
Note the omission of the stretcher in the right-hand stool. The shell and husk
carving is typical.

FIG. 81. SMALL BUREAU AND BUREAU WITH CUPBOARD.
Late 17th century.    Early 18th century.
The inverted cup shape of the turned legs in the small bureau shows the William and Mary period. The mirrored doors of the cupboard in the right-hand example were a common feature in Queen Anne pieces of this kind.

FIG. 82. SMALL WALNUT WRITING TABLE.
Early 18th century.
This exemplifies well the way in which the construction
was entirely concealed by the use of veneer. The apron
piece beneath the drawers is often seen in Queen Anne
tables.

FIG. 83. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD SECRETAIRE.
Early 18th century.
The front of the upper carcase is hinged so that it drops down and Corms a
writing top. The inside is fitted up for stationery.

FIG. 84. WALNUT VENEERED CHINA CABINET.
Early 18th century.
The barred doors owed their origin to the difficulty of producing glass In
large panes. They were cross-grained with a rib at the back.

FIG. 85. CHINA CABINET WITH BARRED DOORS ON STAND.
Late 171h century.
The craze for collecting china encouraged by Queen Mary was the cause
of the introduction of the china cabinet.

Tudor Gothic Period Stools, Chairs and Tables

EVOLUTION OF THE CHEST
We have spoken of the chest as being part of the furnishing of the early house, and we deal with it first, not only because it was a most important piece of furniture, but because so many other pieces were evolved from it. It was used for all sorts of purposes : the storing of clothes or valuables, for a travelling chest, as a seat, or (in the larger sizes) even as a bed. In fact it was its all-round usefulness
that was its great virtue, and accounts for the comparatively large numbers which have survived.
Early Hollowed-out Chests.—In its earliest form it was merely hollowed out of a solid baulk of timber, the lid usually following the line of the trunk in shape and so being rounded. Such chests belong generally to a period before the fourteenth century, after which the more economical method of jointing up timber was evolved. Fig. 2 is an example. It stands in the old church at Harbledown, Kent.
A curious example of how convention sets its stamp on things is shown in the next example, Fig. 3, which exemplifies the next stage in which separate boards were peggedtogether. Note how the lid, although not actually rounded, is raised in the centre and is so a survival of the older hollowed-out solid lid. Another feature of special interest is the way it is hinged. The end pieces into which the lid boards are housed are made extra wide at the back and fit outside the ends of the lower chest portion. Pegs passing through both enable the lid to be raised. It was a system of hingeing (usually termed pin hingeing) which survived until some time during the thirteenth century, when it was replaced by the more convenient metal strap hinges.
Planked Chests.—At the time our story begins—the late fifteenth century—most chests were little more than a series
PROBABLE EVOLUTION OF FORM AND SETTLE.
The construction of the form is practically identical with that of the
planked chest, and it is probable that the one was evolved from the other.
In the same way the early settle was really only a chest with the posts
and back continued upwards.
of four boards nailed or pegged together to form the sides, and a bottom and lid. It was a method of construction about which there was something rather obvious. It was essentially simple, a serious consideration in days when every operation had to be done entirely by hand, and up to a point it served its purpose.
At the same time it had its disadvantages. For one thing it was extremely limited in the form and degree of decoration that could be given (and the Renaissance craftsmen were extremely fond of decoration), and, what was a more serious point, it was not sound structurally. All timber is bound to shrink, and providing the entire shrinkage takes place during the seasoning no harm is done. But this is seldom practicable. A board which has been seasoned for years may still shrink more after it has been worked and built into a piece of furniture.
Now if the grain of these chests is examined (take Fig. 4 for example) it will be seen that that of the front and back runs horizontally from side to side, whereas that of the ends is vertical. As wood always shrinks across the grain, it follows that the front and back are trying to reduce their width but are prevented from doing so by the upright grain
FIG. 18. PANELLED BACK CHAIR DECORATED WITH INLAY AND
CARVING.
About 1600.
A big advancement on the previous chair. The lower part Is open, and
the arms are unpanelled. The back has a definite incline, and, although
back legs are upright, they are made extra thick at the bottom to give
the good stability.
of the ends. As a consequence they have to split, and it is this that accounts for the bad condition in which the fronts of these chests are often found. If the reader turns to P. 21 he will find the point explained yet more fully.
Framed-up Construction.—It was to overcome this fundamental fault that the panelled system of construction was evolved, in which the strength was provided by a frame-work joined at the corners with mortise and tenon joints, the centre portion being filled in with a panel which rested in grooves worked in the inner edges of the framework. The panel was entirely free in the grooves, so that in the event of shrinkage no harm whatever would be done. Fig. 12 shows the idea. It was a system which has remained as a standard practice ever since.
The effect of this new form of construction on the chest is shown in Fig. 5. It is virtually four separate frames except that the legs are part of both front and sides. The
FIG. 19. LONG FORM WITH GOTHIC SHAPINGS.
Early 16th century.
This was the usual seating accommodation for the majority of people.
In a hall there might be one chair, the seat of honour for the principal
person (hence the term “chairman “), but forms or stools were good
enough for the others.
bad effects of shrinkage are eliminated, since the panels are free to shrink.
Whilst still on this subject of panelling, it is instructive to note that the width of the individual panels was seldom more than that of a single board, this saving the necessity of jointing. It is a useful point to remember because it accounts for the comparatively narrow panels found in early oak work.
TREATMENT OF PANELS
Linenfold Panels.—A favourite method of embellishing the panels of these chests was to carve them in the linenfold pattern as in Fig. 5, and many ingenious theories have been put forward to account for the origin of this device. That it was carved to represent a piece of folded linen is un-doubtedly true, but it probably owed its origin to a practical reason, especially as the earlier patterns were of simple form, just an ogee-shaped section, thin at the edges and rising to a point at the centre.
Most early oak was riven, that is, the log was cleft at the end with a wedge and so forced apart. The method was far less laborious than sawing, and it was stronger since it followed the natural line of cleavage. Fig. 9 shows the
FIG. 20. SIMPLE TUDOR GOTHIC STOOLS.
Early 16th century.
Note that the Gothic shaping of the uprights in the stool to the right is
similar to that in the long form in Fig. 19.
FIG. 21. ELIZABETHAN BOX
STOOL.
Late 16th century.
A small box space is formed beneath the seat, the latter acting as a lid.
process. At the same time the boards were not so straight and the surface was liable to have ridges in it. These ridges may have suggested the lines of the folded linen, and in any case the edges had to be reduced in thickness to enable them to fit in the grooves of the framing. Thus it seems to be a case of the craftsmen making the most of the peculiarities of the material, and adapting the design to suit the natural formation.
The enlarged illustration on p. IS shows a linenfold pattern in closer details in which the wood is cut thin at the sides to enable it to enter the grooves. This cutting-away forms a part of the design. Note also that the recessing of the groundwork at top and bottom to throw the folds into relief answers the same purpose.
Curved Rib Panels.—Another form of decoration was what is usually termed the curved rib design, an example of which is also given on p. 18. It probably owed its origin to the same causes as the linenfold. If the two illustrations C and D are compared it will be seen that the linenfold has the same downward curve in the ends of the folds at the top. The only fundamental difference is the introduction of the centre fold. The thinning of the edges occurs in both, and the riving of the timber would make it suitable for either one or the other in accordance with the amount of timber left by the cleavage. In fact it may be that the craftsman decided which treatment he would give after the timber had been riven. Or, alternatively, assuming that he had some timber already riven, he would select that which was the more suitable for the design he had in mind.
Tracery Designs.—This, however, is largely theory, and we may now turn to yet another kind of panel, the origin of which is more certain. This is the traceried panel of which two examples are given on p. 18. They were taken from the Gothic traceried windows which were a common feature of buildings of the period. Generally they were pierced right through, and this had the advantage of providing ventilation for such items as were used for storing food. When this was undesirable, for instance in the front of an ordinary chest, the ” window ” portions were just recessed, leaving the ribs standing up in high relief.
It is sometimes argued that the ecclesiastical appearance of these chests suggests that they were made originally for a church, but this is by no means necessarily the case. That the traceried designs were similar to the work found in churches is true, but it must be remembered the same thing applied to all secular work, because there was no other style than the Gothic. The Gothic style was evolved chiefly from the building of churches, but secular work followed on precisely the same lines.
Renaissance Designs.—The panel at E on p. 19 is of particular interest in that it shows the beginning of the new spirit the Renaissance brought with it. It is true that there are features about it that are reminiscent of the Gothic, but the main design is something outside what the latter pro-duced. It was probably a case of a man brought up in the Gothic tradition feeling his way rather cautiously in an unfamiliar element. It is somewhat meaningless in the treatment of the upper scrolls terminating in the horizontal band with the leafwork sprouting below, and one has the feeling that here was a man to whom new ideas were suggested but who was uncertain what to make with them.
Romayne Panels.—Another basic motif found in early Renaissance work was the Romayne panel, which consisted of a wreath of leafwork encircling the carved representation of a head, usually in profile. Such designs were often found on buildings, for instance, in the Gateway of Hampton Court Palace, and they provided a rich field for the carver’s fancy. Sometimes they were purely mythological head pieces, often of Roman origin, the head having the wreath of victory around the brow. On the other hand, these busts were often carved as a portrait of the person for whom the chest was made, and one can imagine the self-sufficiency of the owner as he would point out the likeness to his friends—though to judge from some of them the result could hardly have been flattering.
We have gone into the details found on these chests at some length because they form the basis upon which ornament of the time was built up. First the Gothic tracery or the linenfold, then the curious intermixture of the Renaissance with the Gothic, and finally the purer Renaissance, if such a term may be applied to a style which was handled in so free a way. Whatever its merits as a design, however, it had this about it, that it was extremely virile and spirited in its execution. A man came across this and that motif, and he worked on them with a complacent disregard for their true meaning and gave of his best in dealing with them. The result was the production of the style we know as Tudor Gothic.
At this point we may leave the chest for the time being. That made during the last phase of the period, that cf Elizabeth, was similar to that in Fig. 5, except that the linen-fold device was replaced by Renaissance details, and the framing was usually more or less elaborately carved. We shall pick up the thread again when we come to the next chapter dealing with the Jacobean times.

Mid 16th century.    About 1530•
FIG. 7. TUDOR GOTHIC PANELS WITH RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCE.

TRESTLE TABLE WITH GOTHIC LINES.
First half 16th century.
These tables were made specially so that they could be taken to pieces
and stacked away flat. The withdrawal of the wedges enabled the rails
to be pulled away clear of the trestle ends.
FIG. 23. DRAW TABLE OF ELIZABETH’S DAYS.
Second half 16th century.
This is the earliest form of extending table, and it is still the most reliable.
The extending leaves rest beneath the main top, and as they are pulled
out they are caused to rise by means of tapering bearers beneath.

USING THE RIVING IRON TO CONVERT TIMBER,
The iron was placed at the end of the timber and struck with the ” beetle to enter it. It was then levered over so that the timber was split.
FIG. 10. THE ADZE.
This was used to clean
the surface after cut-
ting out.
FIG. 11. SCRATCH TOOL.
The chief purpose of this was to work
mouldings. It was simply worked
back and forth.
FIG. 8. CUTTING OUT TIM-
BER WITH THE PIT SAW.
The man at the top was in
control, and it was his job to see
that the saw kept to the line.
He was called the top sawyer.
The man in the pit simply helped
to supply the power.

CARVING OF
FIGURES SEATED ON
A SETTLE.
Late i5th century.
Although the whole thing measures only some IS In. in height, it is of special Interest in that it shows the type of settle in use at the time it was carved. Note the linenfold panels, and the way in which the front framework reaches
right to the floor.

FIG. 16. PENITENT STOOL FROM
FORDWICH CHURCH, KENT.
Date uncertain, but probably earlier than i5th century.
The construction of this is crude in the
extreme. It is simply a solid piece of timber
with the upper part chopped out to form
the seat and back.
FIG. 17. EARLY FORM
OF PANELLED CHAIR
WITH LOWER BOX
PORTION.
First half 16th century.
The general form is
similar to that of the
settle shown in Fig. 15,
and the idea was prob-
ably prompted by the
chest. The back In this
case has a slight slope,
though in many similar
chairs it was quite
upright.

ART NOUVEAU CHAIRS: UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR, LAYERED WOOD CHAIR, SLAT-BACK ARMCHAIR, BENTWOOD SIDE CHAIR, UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR, CANED-SEAT ARMCHAIR, CURVED DESK CHAIR

ART NOUVEAU CHAIRS

ejtdra9skh

WHEN  IT CAME TO the chair, Art
Nouveau designers let their imaginations run wild. Designers from Glasgow to Nancy used the chair to illustrate and promote the Art Nouveau ideal.
Breaking free from traditional methods of design and construction, designers experimented with flowing, abstract shapes influenced by nature, and bending or elongating wood into sculptural pieces.
The Scottish architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh left an indelible mark on Art Nouveau furniture, especially with his ground-breaking chair designs. Well proportioned with attenuated backs imparting an almost ecclesiastical appearance, his cube-based chairs decorated with geometric cut-out patterns were influential, especially on designers
working in Germany    Austria, who embraced this more linear approach.
The French strand of Art Nouveau produced a contrasting style. with its sinuous, organic. fluid chair designs which were made by Louis Majorelle and Hector Guimard in exotic woods. These were often lavishly decorated with intricate inlays, marquetry. and carved botanical motifs on top rails, legs, and aprons.
A taste for the exotic also provided another decorative and extremely influential outlet in chairs – from Japanese and Moorish-inspired designs to bizarre seat furniture created by Carlo Bugatti and Antoni Gaudi using a variety of materials. Bugatti and Gaudi used imaginative combinations of wood and metals, embellished with materials such as leather, vellum, and silk.

The curves on this piece were achieved using the bentwood technique.
Aluminium nails decorate the replaced leather seat and back.
The beech frame is stained the colour of mahogany.
UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR
This chair is constructed from bent beechwood stained the colour of mahogany. The curved shape was achieved by steaming the wood, then applying even pressure. The prolific architect and founder of the Vienna Secession, J.M. Olbrich, designed this armchair for Thonet of Vienna. c1902.

ARMCHAIR
This mahogany armchair has an upholstered crest, a slat back and carved arms. The seat and back panel are upholstered in velvet. The slat back forms a back leg and the piece
terminates in bun feet. c. 1900.
LAYERED WOOD CHAIR
This is one of a set of four chairs made in the style of the early Vienna Secession. The chair is made of cut beechwood and layered wood which is stained in two shades. The seat is covered in black leather, but is not original. c.1900.
This stained beech and elm chair was probably made by Wylie & Lochhead of Glasgow. The curved top rail sits above three splats. The seat is inlaid with boxwood lining. The legs are joined by double stretchers that terminate in upholstered, panelled feet. L&T I
This Viennese slat-back armchair is constructed from veneered and polished nut wood massif. The design is accredited to Josef Hoffmann. A low, D-shaped stretcher unites the straight legs near to the base of the chair. c.1905.
ARMCHAIR
SLAT-BACK ARMCHAIR
BENTWOOD CHAIR
This beech chair, made and signed by Austrian manufacturer Thonet, has a flowing bentwood frame made of bent rods, which curves without the use of carving and joints. It has a shaped seat rail and a reversed, heart-shaped back that sweeps below the seat to form stretchers. The triangular seat is made of cane, although it is not original. The chair terminates in three legs. c.1900.

This is one of a pair of side chairs made of oak. The back of the chair has curvilinear rails linking tapering uprights above a drop-in seat.
Square-section, tapering legs terminate in pad feet.
This early J. & J. Kohn side chair was designed by Josef Hoffmann. It has a bentwood back and tapering legs, and there are four wooden spheres under the seat rail. The brown leather
upholstery is tacked on to the seat and back, obscuring the stamped mark.
SIDE CHAIR
BENTWOOD SIDE CHAIR
ARMCHAIR
This is one of a pair of mahogany armchairs designed by J.S. Henry. The tall, upholstered back has sinuous leaf finials, curving open arms, and an upholstered pad seat. The seat is supported on turned and tapering legs linked by an arched stretcher at the front and straight side
stretchers.

MARQUETRY ARMCHAIR
Designed by Louis Majorette, the back splat of this mahogany armchair is decorated in marquetry depicting branch and leaf designs. The chair has moulded “U”-shaped crinoline arms that have distinctive duck’s-head terminals. The seat is upholstered in velvet.
UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR
This mahogany armchair, designed by G.M. Ellwood, has a tapering back containing an oval upholstered panel and elegant vertical splats. The piece has open upholstered arms and an upholstered seat. The legs terminate in tassle carved feet.
ARMCHAIR
This stained mahogany armchair features distinctive, wavy, horizontal splats positioned above and below the rectangular panelled back. The downswept, open arms and
upholstered panel seat are raised on turned, tapered legs.
CANED-SEAT ARMCHAIR
This is one of a pair of “Model 511″ chairs by Thonet, constructed from bent beech. The splat is pierced with holes, with parallel slats below. The back continues in a curve down to the feet. The seat is made of woven caning. c.1904.
This mahogany desk chair by Louis Majorelle has open arms featuring galleries of tapered spindles. Red-leather upholstery on the back and scat is fixed to the frame with studs. The twisted form of the legs emphasizes the sinuous, feminine design.
This carved walnut armchair designed by Henri Rapin has a wing back and bold scrolling terminals. The tapering legs lead to splayed spade feet. The heavily patterned upholstery is not original. 1910.
This Louis Majorelle carved mahogany desk chair (part of a desk set) has moulded arms leading into sweeping, reverse-curved supports. The chair has a distinctive, low upholstered back. The front legs are cabriole in shape. c.1903.
This armchair was designed by Josef Maria Olbrich and made by Josef Niedermoser of Vienna. The frame is black-varnished maple, the chair is upholstered with yellow leather covers, and the feet are metal. 1898 99.
DESK CHAIR
OPEN ARMCHAIR
CURVED DESK CHAIR
ARMCHAIR