Posts Tagged ‘diamond’

Dishes
Pair of George III oval meat dishes by Frederick Kandler, London, 1765, 73 oz 2 dwt Pair of Victorian octagonal entree dishes and covers with
vegetable dividers for each and ball finials, Sheffield, 1880,
120 oz 14 dwt 450 0
George III circular vegetable dish with ivory grips, pierced sides and four scroll and foliate feet, by W.S., London, 1809, 80 oz 2 dwt 360 0
William IV shaped oblong entree dish and cover with engraved armorials and foliate ring handle, by J. C. Eddington, London, 1835, 61 oz 5 dwt 260 0
George III muffin dish and cover, the domed cover with urn
shaped finial, by Henry Chawner, London, 1791, 15 oz 1 dwt        210 0
Jugs—Cream and Milk
George III helmet-shaped cream jug with ‘bright-cut’ engraving, loop handle and square pedestal foot, by George Smith, London, 1790, 3 oz 7 dwt 80 0
George II cream jug of conch shell type with serpent handle and
three coral-like supports. Circa 1755, 3 oz 5 dwt 80 0
George III oblong milk jug engraved with crests and with gadroon lip and scroll handle, by R. and S. Hennell, London, 1808, 6 oz 2 dwt 70 0
Victorian baluster milk jug chased with flowers and scrolls and on three feet. Possibly by William Brawn, London, 1845, 5 oz 7 dwt 52 0
Jugs—Water
George III pear-shaped hot-water jug, stand and lamp, the jug with rams’ masks and laurel festoons, the stand on three claw feet with female bust terminals, by Andrew Fogelberg. The jug 1776, the stand 1775, 40 oz

780 0
George III vase-shaped hot-water jug, plain with wood handle and on circular foot, by William Fountain, London, 1801, 25 oz 11 dwt 460 0
George II baluster hot-water jug chased with scrolls, leaves and flowers, raffia-covered handle and rim foot, by Gurney and Cook, London, 1755, 19 oz 15 dwt 270 0
Jugs—Wine and Ale
Queen Anne ale jug, die ground embossed with foliage and flowers and a satyr spout, by John Wisdom, London, 1712, 35 oz 280 0
Victorian wine ewer with baluster body and engraved with Grecian figures and leaves, entwined snake handle and butterfly finial, by E. and J. Barnard, London, 1862, 27 oz 11 dwt        170 0
Marrow Scoops
Queen Anne scoop of typical form by Charles Jackson, 1713,
1 oz 10 dwt 68 0
Early George III scoop, the larger bowl engraved with initials,
probably by William Tuite, London, 1767, 1 oz 12 dwt 20 0
Mustard Pots
George III drum mustard with moulded borders, flat hinged lid and simple scroll handle, with spoon of earlier date. Pot by Ernes and Barnard, London, 1813, 5 oz 10 dwt 165 0
some auction room prices : 1968-69
William IV mustard with ribbed baluster body and hinged domed lid with floral finial, scroll handle and shell thumbpiece and spoon of same date but different maker. Pot by C.G., London, 1830, 6 oz 17 dwt
George III oblong mustard with domed cover, urn finial and angular handle on four bun feet, London, 1813, 3 oz 11 dwt
Salts
Four George I plain oval trencher salts with incurved sides, by
Mary Rood, 1723, 6 oz 15 dwt Pair of George III boat-shaped salts, reeded at the lips and
pedestal feet, gilt interiors, by Peter and Ann Bateman, 1792,
4 oz 6 dwt
Pair of George II compressed circular salts, with plain engraved bodies below gadroon lips each on three shell-headed hoof supports, possibly by Isaac Cookson, Newcastle, 1747, 8 oz 1 dwt
Salvers
George II large circular salver on four lions’ mask and shell bracket feet, the shaped border pierced and chased, by George Wickes, 1744, 137 oz
George I plain circular salver on central foot with moulded border, by W.P., 1720, 13 oz 12 dwt
George III circular salver, engraved with initials, chased wave border and gadroon rim, on three claw and ball feet, by Robert Rcw or Rugg, 1766, 24 oz 3 dwt
Victorian salver engraved in the centre with an initial and also with scrolls and foliage, moulded border, by J. and J. Angell, London, 1845, 25 oz 14 dwt
Sauceboats
Pair of George II plain sauceboats each on three shell and scroll feet with gadrooned rims and double scroll handles, by Peter Archambo and Peter Meure, 1754, 29 oz
George II two-handled plain double-lipped sauceboat on collet foot, with double scroll handles and waved rim, with a moulded drop beneath the spout, by Peter Archambo, 1732, 17 oz 5 dwt
Pair of George III sauceboats, each on fluted shaped lozenge foot, with gadrooned borders and double scroll handles, by William Sampcl, 1766, 25 oz
Snuff Boxes—See Small Decorative Antiques Sugar Basins—See Baskets—Sugar Tapersticks—See Candlesticks Tankards
William and Mary tankard on three lion couchant feet, scroll handle, cylindrical body and moulded base, by Robert Cooper, 1692, 31 oz
George II baluster tankard with domed cover, openwork thumb-piece and double-scroll handle, on moulded spreading foot, by William Grundy, 1755, 34 oz 5 dwt 650 0
George III baluster tankard, with domed moulded cover and heart-shaped lower terminal to the scrolling handle, by William Caldecott or Gripps, 1765, 27 oz 15 dwt 570 0
Tea Caddies
George III oval caddy, the body with two bands of bright-cut engraving in beaded borders and the plain hinged lid with urn finial, by Hester Bateman, 1781, 14 oz 10 dwt 900 0
George III shaped oval caddy, the body fluted at intervals, decorated with bright-cut engraving, hinged domed cover with wood finial, by Robert Hennell, 1787, 14 oz 17 dwt 480 0
Teapots and Stands
George II bullet teapot with engraved shoulder decoration of satyr masks, leaves and flowers, straight spout, loose lid, ivory handle and finial, by Isaac Liger, 1729, 15 oz 1 dwt 2,100 0
George III teapot stand on four fluted panel supports, by Hester
Bateman, 1789, 4 oz 15 dwt 280 0
George III oval teapot with moulded girdles and a matching stand, supported on four feet, by Crespin Fuller, London, 1800, 16 oz 15 dwt 270 0
George III oval, semi-lobed teapot, with swan-neck spout, ivory handle and finial, by P. A. and W. Bateman, 1799, 17 oz 3 dwt 170 0
George IV teapot, compressed circular body, ivory handle and
finial, curved spout, by Eley and Fearn, 1823, 25 oz 16 dwt        150 0
William IV compressed circular teapot with moulded girdle, wood finial and similar wood handle, by E. E. J. and W. Barnard, 1830, 14 oz 2 dwt 135 0
Early Victorian bullet-shaped teapot with engraved body, Edinburgh, 1840, 24 oz 82 0
George III oval teapot stand, gadroon border on four panel
supports, but George Fenwick, Edinburgh, 1806, 5 oz 14 dwt 80 0
William IV small melon-shaped teapot, with slightly domed cover and ivory finial, scroll handle and curved spout, London, 1833, 13 oz 18 dwt 60 0
Tea and Coffee Services
Victorian tea and coffee service of compressed circular form, decorated with embossed flowers and foliate handles and on scrolled feet with shell motifs, by Rawlins and Sumner, London, 1838, 72 oz 600 0
George IV three-piece melon-shaped tea service with scroll handles and shell decorated panel supports, by E. E. J. and W. Barnard, London, 1829, 44 oz 7 dwt 500 0
George III circular three-piece tea service with curved lobes, gadroon rims and leaf decorated handles, on paw supports, the pot with rose finial, by John Angell, 1819, 41 oz 6 dwt 380 0
Victorian three-piece tea service of compressed circular form,
the plain ground richly chased, by I. J. Keith, London, 1840, 48 oz
Vinaigrettes—See Small Decorative Antiques Waiters
Pair of George III plain oval waiters each on four shell and beaded bracket feet, beaded rims, by John Scofield, London, 1777, 27 oz
George II plain shaped square waiter on four hoof feet, moulded border, by Thomas Farren, London, 1734, 6 oz 17 dwt
Early George II square waiter with raised border incurved at the angles, 1727, 3 oz 18 dwt
SHEFFIELD PLATE Candelabra and Candlesticks
Pair of candelabra, each for three lights, with reeded scrolling arms, gadroon bordered knops, detachable nozzles and circular bases, 17i in high to centres
Pair of three-light candelabra, the tapering vase stems, circular bases and campana-shaped sconces decorated with chased borders, each fitted with two detachable scrolling branches, one converting to form a

five-light and bearing flame finial, 20 in high
Pair of table candlesticks with V-shaped stems, gadroon shoulders, circular bases and detachable nozzles, llj in high
Pair of table candlesticks with circular bases, vase-shaped stems and gadroon borders, detachable nozzles, 11 in high
Coffee Pots
Vase-shaped coffee pot on pedestal foot with reeded borders, ball finial and wood handle, 13 in high
An oval coffee pot on pedestal base, with reeded shoulder, gadroon borders and angular wood handle, 9] in high
Urn-shaped coffee pot, body semi-lobed between ribbed panels, on pedestal base, ball finial and wood handle, 27 in high
Coasters—Wine
Four circular wine coasters with lobed sides below gadroon lips, the wood bases centred by crested bosses, 5J in diameter
Pair of circular coasters with beaded and ovolo rims, wood bases, 6 in diameter
Caddies—Tea
Two caddies of bombd form embossed with shell motifs Serpentined caddy with hinged lid and beaded borders
Dishes
Set of four entree dishes and covers on heater bases, oblong with scrolling foliate borders, 14 in wide over handles
Pair of entree dishes and covers with gadroon borders and
detachable foliate handles, 11 in wide 22 0
A rectangular entree dish and cover complete with liner, gadroon and leaf borders, wood end handles, on four supports, 141 in wide 20 0
Teapots
An oblong teapot, body semi-Iobed between gadrooned borders, short spout, ivory finial and angular wooden handles, 5J in high 25 0
A compressed circular teapot engraved with swirling leafage,
fruit finial and scroll handle, 5J in high 18 0
Tea and Coffee Services
Oval three-piece coffee service with vase-shaped pot, oval jug and basin decorated with bands of sprays and foliage, 10 in high the pot 160 0
Three-piece tea set with compressed circular bodies, fluted,
foliate collars, scroll handles and foliate panel supports 38 0
Tea Trays
Oblong two-handled tray, engraved with armorials within a chased surround of scrolls and floral sprays, gadroon border, 30 in wide 220 0
An oblong tray, gadroon bordered and reeded end handles
springing from chased foliage, 28 in wide 95 0
Tea Urns
An inverted compressed pear-shaped urn, the body engraved
with a crest, foliate handles and flower finial, 16 in high 75 0
An oviform urn with an applied plain shield, the cover with vase finial, reeded loop handles, on square base with ball feet, 221 in high 45 0
Tureens
Large shaped oval sauce tureen on four feet below heavily
chased floral motifs, detachable liner, 16J in wide 230 0
Pair of oval sauce tureens and domed covers with gadrooned rims, decorated with acorns and oak leaves at the handles, 8Ј in wide (end handles missing from one tureen) 120 0
Wine Coolers
Set of four coolers, the campana-shaped bodies engraved with contemporary armorials above lobing reeded handles and gadroon borders, on pedestal bases, 9i in high 520 0
Pair of coolers with campana-shaped bodies, reeded handles and
on pedestal bases, 9J in high 200 0
NON-PRECIOUS METALS
Brass
Pair of eighteenth-century andirons, with spherical finials, and
masks, 29 in high 100 0
SOME AUCTION ROOM PRICES ! 1968-69
A club fender
A Corinthian column floor standard
An embossed fire kerb
A two-handled log tub on paw feet
An alms dish with lobed centre and inscription border, the rim
with punched rosettes, 15} in diameter Pair of spirally-turned candlesticks on domed feet, 20J in high A hanging oil lamp Pair of chambersticks, with snuffers A heavy log tub with lion mask handles on paw feet Brass

and steel semi-circular fender
An oval fire insurance plate with a crest of a stag, dated 1774 Pair of carriage lamps A helmet coal-scuttle
A warming-pan with turned wood handle Pair of baluster candlesticks, 9 in high
Bronze
Figure of a racehorse and jockey after Isadore Bonhcur, I0j in
high
The Capture of Alexander by G. Halse. Two warriors hold a
struggling youth. Signed and dated 1860, 24 in high Eighteenth-century Italian figure The Dying Gladiator signed
Canova
Figure of a dancing fawn, holding up a bunch of grapes and
balanced on his left foot, 14 in high Figure of an infant satyr playing a set of pipes, 9j in high Pair of busts of Henry IV and Sully, three-quarter length, both
wearing ruffs and decorations, on rouge marble socles, 20} in
high
Pair of Art Nouveau winged figures stamped A. Moreau, 9J in
high
Pair of five-light candelabra on bulbous stems Italian figure of Venus, 7 in high
Copper
Early nineteenth-century tea urn on a square base
A street lamp
Three large saucepans (one with lid) Two coal scuttles A large kettle
Coal helmet with swing handle
Large two-handled urn and cover
A copper and brass tea urn with tap
A long turned wooden-handled warming-pan
Iron and Steel
Steel and brass basket grate with pierced frieze and baluster
uprights, 20 in wide Seventeenth-century Sussex wrought-iron fireback, 2 ft 10 in
by 1 ft 8 in and a log fork Wrought-iron shaped fire-back Regency iron and brass stick stand on paw feet
Victorian cast-iron corner stick stand 5 10
Victorian cast-iron oil heater 3 10
Pewter
A charger with secondary touch of Thomas Lanyon, circa 1730,
20 in diameter 36 0
Five quart tankards 35 0
A four-branch candelabrum, 24 in high 22 0
Eighteenth-century circular charger, 20 in diameter 22 0 Pair of altar candlesticks, baluster-shaped stems on triangular
bases, 20 in high 16 0
Pair of baluster and cup candlesticks, 18 in high 15 0
A hot-water meat dish with two handles and a grill, 22 in wide 15 0
A travelling chamber-pot, stamped Jas. Dixon 14 0
Two tankards and a mug 6 0

MODERNISM
CHAIRS
AS FURNITURE PRODUCTION steadily
shifted emphasis from craft-based manufacturing to industrial methods, so the look of the chair changed dramatically Ornament was doggedly erased from designs as structure became more important to the aesthetic look. Solid wood began to fall from favour (too expensive and inflexible) as moulded plywood and tubular steel stepped into the spotlight.
Just as the notion of open-plan space was creeping into Western architecture, so furniture was freed from fulfilling just one function. Chairs became
increasingly ambiguous, with some made for indoor and outdoor use, and others equally at home in an office or dining room. Chairs became lighter, too, as they were frequently moved around the house.
With mass production in mind, designers began to concentrate their efforts on fixtures. The aim became
to produce a chair made of a minimum number of components that fitted together easily and quickly It’s no surprise, then, that the cantilever chair became so popular, as the continuous loop of legs and base eradicated the need for numerous nuts and bolts.
While the structure of the chair became increasingly celebrated in its design, as opposed to any stylistic conceits, so the designer as an
individual receded into the background. Industry became more important than art, as designers sought to express nothing more romantic than the manufacturing process.
The reason the chair dominated the focus of designers’ effort`_ is because a person’s emotional attachment is far greater to a chair than to, say, a shelving unit. If Modernist designers wanted to alter their audience’s emotional and intellectual outlook, it was through the chair that they tried to do so.
The slender armrests display a use of cushioning that is rare fora chair by Marcel Breuer.
The steel struts beneath the seat have been bowed so they cannot be felt by the sitter.
The chair is made from non-reinforced tubular steel, thereby making it less rigid.
B34 CHAIR WITH ARMS
The frame of this cantilever chair is made from one continuous loop of tubular steel. Although the base looks as though it is all in contact with the floor, the side pieces bend slightly so that only the corners touch the floor — the idea
being that most floors are slightly uneven and the smallest change in level would make the chair wobble. This chair has arms with elbow supports, and a blue canvas seat and back. Designed by Marcel Breuer and produced by Thonet. 1928. H:85cm (33Vzin); W.57.5cm (22Vain); D:63cm (24-Xin), Qu I
This armchair was inspired by a model made by Alvar Aalto. The chair’s seat and back are made from a single sheet of laminated wood and sit within an oak open-arm frame. H:76cm (30in) CA
LANDI CHAIR
This easy chair comprises a series of square-section planks of pine, joined by wooden dowels. It has a slatted section on both seat and chair back. Designed by Hein Stolle. c.1930. BonBay 2
SIDE CHAIR
The seat and back of this early cantilevered chair are made of ebonized moulded plywood and sit on a chrome-plated tubular-steel frame. The armrests are ebonized beech. Mart Stam for Thonet. c.1930. BonBay 2
ZIG-ZAG CHAIR
One of a pair, this chair has a tubular-steel frame reminiscent of Rietveld’s Zig-Zag chair. The wooden seat is supported on steel rods and has a later vinyl cover. H: 82.5cm (321in); W.41.5cm (161in); D:63.5cm (25in). Qu I
Lightweight and durable, this stacking chair is made from pressed and bent aluminium. Each armrest and pair of legs is from one piece of aluminium. Hans Coray. 1938. H: 76cm (290); W.51cm (19in); D:55cm (21in). BonBay 2
CLUB CHAIR
AALTO-INSPIRED CHAIR
EASY CHAIR
The rectilinear frame is made from stained pearwood secured with brass fittings. The chair is upholstered in hand-woven woolen fabric. Peter Keler, Bauhaus Weimar. 1925. H:69cm (27in); W.62cm (24V:ln); D:68cm (26%0). WKA
LOUNGE CHAIR
CANTILEVERED ARMCHAIR
One of a pair, this armchair has a tubular-chrome frame and seat with cushions upholstered in a dark brown, brushed fabric with red trim. The armrests are black-enamelled. H:86.5cm (34in). SDR I
Designed by Gilbert Rohde, this cantilevered armchair has a bright chrome base and black laminated armrests. The cushions are upholstered in ivory leather with a black trim. H:94cm (37in). SDR 1
THE STACKING CHAIR
STILL FOUND IN CAFES WORLDWIDE, THIS ICONIC DESIGN IS PERHAPS THE FIRST STACKING CHAIR, AND CERTAINLY THE FIRST WIDESPREAD DESIGN, OF ITS KIND.
The so-called Bistro chairs These have a pressed-steel frame and are painted red; with plywood seats. c.1926. H:82cm (32Vin). DOR 3
The origins of this chair, despite the efforts of numerous historians, have proved murky at best. The design is most likely to have been developed in France some time around 1925, specifically for the country’s booming cafe culture. The chair bears a strong, albeit rather crude, resemblance to chairs designed by Emile Jacques Ruhlmann, although it’s doubtful whether the French high-society designer ever had a hand in its conception.
What is perhaps most impressive about the chair, apart from its stackability, is its economy of materials. The steel used is incredibly thin and, to give the legs rigidity, the steel has been subtly curved. To save further on metal, holes have been cut from the seat back. While the perfect low-cost, space-saving chair was to become something of a holy grail for 20th-century furniture designers, few ever bettered the chair design that first set the ball rolling.
FREE SWINGER ARMCHAIR
The base of this chromed-steel cantilevered armchair from Austria is the only part of the structure that is exposed. The chair seat and back are filled with down and upholstered in sand-coloured velour. H:84cm (331in). DOR 3
LAMINATED LOUNGE CHAIR
This chair has been made from one sheet of cut and moulded laminated birch and resembles the Gerald Summers classic (see p.438). The arms are fixed to the back with metal brackets. Hans Pieck. 1944. H:76cm (30in). Bon Bay 4
BAUHAUS ARMCHAIR
This chair was designed by Erich Dieckmann for the Weimer Bauhaus, in collaboration with Ernst Mayo. Made from solid beech, it has a bowed back and slatted seat. c.1930. H:81.5cm (321:in); W.52.5cm (21in). WKA
DINING CHAIR
This is one of a pair of stacking birch plywood dining chairs that were produced by Artek. The chair has a circular wooden seat and a pierced plywood back, supported on L-shaped plywood uprights. c.1930s.
DIAGONAL CHAIR
This chrome-plated, tubular steel chair is named after the supports between the seat back and legs. The arms, seat, and back are of laminated wood. W.H. Gispen. c.1927. H:82.5cm (321-in); W-54cm (2111n): D:60cm (23,Xln). QU 2
SLATTED CHAIR
This Viennese chair has a tubular-steel frame and solid, stained-beech wooden slats for the seat and back. The arms have wooden armrests. One of a set of four. 1925. H:84.5cm (33V4in). DOR 3

LONG AND LIGHT EARRINGS
Right: A pair of gold repousse and turquoise pendent earrings, circa 1840. Turquoise and carbuncles in association with gold repousse work were particularly favoured at the time.
Below: A portrait miniature of a lady, by Leopold Grosz (or Gross), circa 183o. Note the fashionable coiffure with hair arranged in three clusters of curls expanding sideways, counterbalanced by cannetille earrings en girandole.
Bottom: Two pairs of repousse gold earrings, circa 1840, one with carbuncle the other with polychrome enamel.
Left and below: Four pairs of pendent earrings, set with citrines and pink topazes, circa 1835, characterized by the combination of cannetille and repousse work which marks the transition between the two goldsmith techniques used in this type of earring.
Typically all the earrings illustrated on these pages are long, light, set with semiprecious gemstones or decorated with polychrome enamels and of moderate intrinsic value.
Left: Three pairs of pendent earrings circa
I 870-8o, English, set with diamonds or pearl and diamonds. The designs, though more rigid and stiff, are close to the contemporary French examples illustrated above, but their fluttering ribbons and garland motifs are replaced by plain lines of diamonds.
THE 1860s AND 1870s: BIZARRE VARIETY
In the i86os and 187os earrings became extremely popular, and the fashionable lady would suspend virtually anything from her ears providing it was decorative. Objects of common use such as baskets of flowers or hammers, animals and archaeologically
A parure of emerald, pearl and diamond earrings and matching necklace, with the relevant design, commissioned by Napoleon III and Eugenie from the Parisian jeweller Mellerio in 1863 as a wedding gift to Mar6chal Canrobert. The impact of these earrings relies on the use of important gemstones such as the large cabochon emerald drops rather than the explicit archaeological motifs, though the Greek key pattern and the extensive use of yellow gold even for the setting of the diamonds betrays an archaeological interest. Emeralds were the favourite coloured gemstones of the Empress Eugenie and because of this became one of the most popular gemstones of the time.
WAFER-THIN: EARRINGS OF THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
Right: A portrait of Maria de la Conception Rodriguez of Granada, painted by Jose Gil in 1816. Her earrings, typical of the early i 9th century, are two circular gold plaques set with corals connected by fine chains. Their linearity and two-dimensional quality is well suited to the low d6collet6 and contemporary hairstyle of Classical inspiration.
Above left: A diamond pendent earring, early
i 9th century, showing how the structure of the contemporary gold earrings made of articulated plaques was rendered, almost unaltered, in lavish gemstones such as diamonds.
Above right: Pair of gold earrings, early i 9th century, made of several paper-thin gold plaques of different shapes connected by lateral chains.
Above left: Pair of gold earrings, early i 9th century. Although quite long, these earrings are comfortable to wear because they are cut out of very thin and light gold sheet and not set with gemstones.
Above right: A pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings, probably French, early T 9th century, decorated with portrait miniatures of a man and his wife. Though the design is typical of the
time, this pair presents unusual sentimental imagery: a dove, a pair of flaming hearts, the inscription ‘Fidel’ and forget-me-nots.
TORPEDO-SHAPED DROPS OF THE
1830s AND 1840s
Opposite and below: Three pairs of gold, chalcedony and gem-set pendent earrings, each accompanied by a typical Maltese cross pendant en suite, circa 1830. Contemporary fashion encouraged the use of such elongated drops decorated with applied gold floral motifs, often set with turquoises or other coloured gemstones. They were carved in white or stained chalcedony, usually blue or green.
Right and far right: Two examples of repouss~ gold earrings of elongated drop design, circa 1840, the first applied with turquoise florets, the second decorated with quatrefoil motifs suspended from a shell-shaped surmount. Earrings of this type were usually made of thin foils of metal decorated en repousse and extremely long (i0-12 ems). Their size and lightness were dictated by fashion and economic factors. The exaggerated horizontal lines of dress and hairstyle needed to be offset by long pendants, while at the same time the scarcity of precious metal encouraged the use of wafer-thin foil of embossed gold.
Below centre: A gold and gem-set torpedo-shaped earring, circa 1835, combining embossed and cannetille decoration.
FROM CANNETILLE TO REPOUSSE
Left: Two gold cannetille, diamond and gem-set parures, English, circa T 830. In both cases the parures include a pair of earrings set with rubies and emeralds respectively. Though the design is that of the traditional girandole, the setting in cannetille is typical of the time, the design of the earrings matching those of the necklace
pendants. On the Continent canetille earrings were mainly set with semiprecious stones such as foiled topazes, amethysts and citrines. In England more expensive gemstones such as emeralds, diamonds and rubies were often used.
Right: An exceptional pair of pendent earrings set with aquamarines within repouss~ gold borders, circa 1835. These earrings are typical of the time for their length (12 CMS approximately), for their lightness (15 grams) and for the choice of the stones, two large kite-shaped aquamarines. The lightness of the mount makes them comfortable to wear in spite of their size. Gold repouss~ work replaced cannetille because it was cheaper to manufacture and used small quantities of precious metal.
EGYPTIAN AND CLASSICAL STYLE
Above: An impressive pair of gold earrings and matching necklace, circa I 870. The dominating element of these jewels is the pharaoh mask, so the Egyptian inspiration is sufficiently obvious. Nonetheless the surmount is Classical Greek, a rosette; I 9th-century revivalism was often the result of such combination of elements deriving from different cultures and periods.
Opposite:
A group of Classical revival earrings, circa 1865. Top left: laurel leaf suspended from an Athenian owl surmount. Top right: A pair of gold rams’ head earrings, deriving its design from Greek examples of the late Classical period, the antique counterparts usually consist of a tapered hoop to be inserted into the earlobe terminating with a rams’ head motif, in this case the rams’ head is suspended from a rosette surmount. Below left: A pair of gold and cornelian intaglio earrings, by Castellani, incorporating original Roman intaglios that depict a trophy of arms and a hunting scene. Below right: A pair of gold pendent earrings, by Ernesto Pierret, each designed as a triangular panel decorated with beaded work and corded wire typical of Greek and Etruscan goldsmithwork, flanked by baton motifs with spherical drop terminals.
Opposite: Two pairs of Roman earrings, circa 1870- The first by Civilotti of Rome, combines elements from various sources. The amphora motifs in matt gold find precise counterparts in Greek and Etruscan examples, the gold mosaic plaque with its Christian symbolism is reminiscent of Byzantine mosaics, while the lilies of the circular surmounts belong unmistakably to the i 9th century. The second pair, of gold and Roman mosaic, carry lozenge-shaped plaques with portraits of Sabina and Maximus Caesar. Note in this case the contrast between the sober, classical lines of the pendant and the frivolous design of the floral surmount.
Above: A pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings, circa 1870, in the shape of stylized amphorae. The design has no specific counterpart in Antiquity but is a pastiche of various elements. The amphora motif derives from a popular type of Hellenistic earring; the granulation and corded wire decoration from Greek and Etruscan tradition; and the stylized papyri and palmettos in bright contrasting colours are Egyptian.
Left: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic earrings, circa 1870, in the shape of ewers. The gold chains with pearl terminals are meant to simulate water being poured out — an amusing i 9th-century touch not to be found in Antiquity.
A RANGE OF REVIVALS: THE 1870s
Many Classical designs took the amphora as their model, in, for instance,
tortoiseshell (right) or lapis lazuli (below right). Rams’ heads feature as a pair of gold earrings (below).
Above: Gold and enamel a baule earrings in the Etruscan tradition, seen in front, back and side views. Right top left to bottom right: Hardstonc maenad heads set in elaborate gold and enamel mounts; gold rosette; Wedgwood jasper-ware drops decorated with a white figurative frieze on a blue ground; two earrings based on amphorae in matt gold; and finally a pair of Japanese-influenced gold and polychrome enamel earrings designed as fans on screens.
LIGHTHEARTED EARRINGS OF THE 1860s AND 1870s
Common features of these earrings are a playful naturalistic inspiration, the use of relatively inexpensive material such as gold, enamel, ivory and turquoises, and the combination of bright colours. They are in line with the concept of novelty jewellery, more a fashion accessory —hence the low value of the materials — than precious heirlooms to be treasured.
Left-hand column
Above: A pair of gold and turquoise pendent earrings in the shape of bulrush sprays, the heads pave-set with turquoises. English, circa i 86o.
Below: A pair of gold and enamel earrings, French, circa 18 70, designed as birds nesting in bulrushes.
Centre column
Above: A pair of gold and tinted intaglio earrings, English, circa 1870, depicting goldfish in round bowls.
Middle: A pair of three-coloured gold and enamel earrings, probably French, circa 1860, designed as coiled snakes supporting bunches of grapes.
Below: A pair of gold and enamel earrings, English, circa 1870, in the form of frogs amongst bulrushes in a triangular frame of twigs.
Right-hand column
Above: A pair of gold and tinted ivory earrings, English, circa 1860, designed as cascades of fuchsia blossom carved in tinted pink ivory.
Below: A pair of silver-gilt and turquoise earrings in the form of nesting birds pave-set with turquoises, the wire-work nests containing pearl eggs, French, 18.50-60.
FASHIONS OF THE 1870s
Above: Five designs for earrings from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. Their variety is a reflection of the eclecticism of contemporary jewellery design.
Noticeable, however, is the persistence of motifs of archaeological inspiration such
as the amphora-shaped drops, the cameo supporting a trophy of love and stylized papyri.
Opposite: Among the earrings of naturalistic inspiration fashionable in the I 870s, those designed as acorns found great favour throughout Europe. In Mellerio’s archive are two variations of the same design (below), while similar earrings with a matching pendant are advertised in a contemporary issue of the magazine La Femme et la Famille.
Right: Stylized papyri also form the surmount of this English gold and turquoise earring.
RETURN TO NATURE
During the i 86os women suspended all sorts of ornaments from their ears, from delicate and appealing bouquets of flowers to rather repulsive Brazilian beetles.
Far left: Two pairs of Italian gold earrings, i 86os. The upper pair, set with pearls, has rather disturbing hands supporting a basket of fruits. The lower pair consists of acorns on a two-oak-leaves surmount.
Left: A pair of gold and stained ivory earrings designed as cascading fuchsia blossoms, English, 18 6os.
Above: A pair of Brazilian beetle earrings, English, i 86os. The improved communication with South America prompted the introduction of unusual materials such as Brazilian beetles, whose hard, brilliant and iridescent green shell could be mounted as a gemstone.
EROS, AMPHORAE AND OIL LAMPS
Variations of amphora- and lamp-shaped earrings, circa 1870. Left: A mask of a Maenad supports an amphora carved in lava from Vesuvius, and a pair of gold, enamel and pearl earrings in the shape of oil lamps, by Carlo Giuliano, circa ‘865, modelled on lamps used for votive offerings. Below: a pair of gold earrings designed as amphorae suspended from fine chains; a gold ewer-shaped earring decorated with corded wire and granulation; and a seed pearl, gold and banded agate earring designed as an amphora on a disc surmount, by Carlo Giuliano, bearing the maker’s mark C.G. and the retailer’s mark HR for Hunt and Roskell of London
Eros, or Cupid, a recurrent figure in Hellenistic earrings, appeared frequently, involved in various activities, in earrings of the 18 6os and 18 70s. In two examples (above right) he is riding a gold dove decorated with corded wire and granulation simulating the plumage; the lower pair retains the original fitting, very close in design to the Antique prototype, while the upper is a later alteration.
In a pair of gold and enamel pendent earrings by Eugene Fontenay, circa 1870 (above), Eros is depicted carrying wine jugs on painted enamel plaques imitating Roman wall paintings, while in a pair of gold, seed pearl and enamel earrings by Carlo Giuliano, last quarter of the i 9th century (bottom right) he is playing the lyre and holding a mirror, on circular enamelled plaques.
Left andfar left: Two pairs of earrings set with cameos carved respectively in lava and banded agate, circa 1870.
RENAISSANCE REVIVAL
A pair of gold and polychrome earrings, by Carlo Giuliano, circa 1865, designed as a stork devouring a snake. The subject derives from a Renaissance emblem — the soul overcoming carnal pleasures — and the interest in the sculptural effect from Renaissance jewellery.
Above: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic earrings and matching brooch/pendant, the surmounts of the earrings depicting red, green and white scarabs supporting three elongated drops.
Left: A gold and Roman mosaic pendent earring, the circular surmount decorated with a dolphin and supporting an elaborate drop decorated with the figure of Cupid.
ROMAN AND FLORENTINE MOSAICS OF THE 1870s
Roman and Florentine mosaics, widely exploited in jewellery at the beginning of the i 9th century, came back in great favour in the late i 86os. Roman micromosaic technique was especially favoured, not only because it was suited to render motifs of archaeological
inspiration but also because its technique derived from Antiquity. This consisted in arranging minute coloured glass paste tessarae within hardstone, glass or gold borders.
Left: Gold earrings of archaeological design decorated with Roman mosaic plaques of winged putti, and a brooch/pendant showing a Raphael tondo.
Below left: A pair of Florentine mosaic earrings set with onyx and coloured stones. Florentine mosaic consisted of an inlay of differently coloured hard and semiprecious stones arranged in naturalistic patterns.
Below centre: A pair of gold and Roman mosaic half-hoop earrings in Egyptian revival style. Note the scarab, similar to the example illustrated on the opposite page.
Below right: A Roman mosaic earring of floral design.
SOUVENIR EARRINGS
Since the beginning of the century earrings and other jewels set with Roman mosaic plaques depicting architectural views of Rome or scenes from the Campagna had been popular souvenirs to take back home. Early i 9th-century earrings are characterized by a very simple and linear design. They usually consist of an oval surmount supporting a pear-shaped drop or an oval plaque connected by fine chains. The mosaics are of a high quality, consisting of very small tessarae where the colours are graduated in a very subtle manner giving the illusion of a miniature painting. A good example of this is the pair of earrings (left) set with four mosaic plaques of famous views of Rome including the Pyramid of Cestius and the Columns of Trajan and Antoninus.
Later examples of the 18 6os and 18 70S tend to be more elaborate in design, adapting shapes and decorations to contemporary trends. The quality of the mosaics though, is coarser, a consequence of the increased demand. The earrings and matching pendant (right) with mosaic plaques depicting peasant women of the Campagna in the typical ciociara costume are good examples of the time; their Roman origin is confirmed by the city’s gold hallmark. Note the ubiquitous Egyptian scarab motif on the surmount and the coarse tessarae.
Star motifs first appeared in the late i 86os as an inlaid central decorative motif of earrings set with large cabochon gemstones such as amethysts and carbuncles or enamel bosses as the example illustrated here in black enamel and half pearls (far left). Later six-, eight-, twelve-pointed stars, or more, became extremely popular, often accompanied by a matching pendant and set for instance, with pearls (left).
The popularity of knife-wire setting and the fashion for light and less symmetrical shapes prompted, in the late 18 8os and i 89os, the development of shooting stars and comets.
Opposite centre and far left below:
Numerous points alternate with weightless knife-wires set with diamonds. Left: A pear-shaped drop terminating with a graduated fringe. Above: Set of twelve-pointed star earrings and matching pendant set with pale opals.
Top right: Designs by Mellerio for two variations of star-shaped pendent earrings, part of a parure commissioned by Queen Isabella II of Spain.
INNOVATION AND TRADITION:
FRENCH EARRINGS OF THE 1870s AND 1880s
Two pages of earring designs in pencil and gouache of the late 1870s and early i 88os from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. They range from naturalistic floral creations to pendeloques and girandoles in the i Sth-century tradition, mainly set with pearls and diamonds, together with amusing arrows which appear to pierce the ear, in the style of novelty jewellery. The eclecticism of the sources of inspiration is especially evident on the right-hand page, where Classical archaeology with a typical Greek key pattern, naturalism with floral motifs, Persian and Northern African art with botch and crescent hoops co-exist.
Above: A collection of gold and gem-set earrings spanning the years from 1850 to the 1870s. Noticeable are the small compact earrings of the I 850s designed as clusters of foliate motifs or coiled ribbons; the long pointed drops of the 18 6os in archaeological revival style; the oval panels star-set with half pearls of the early I 87os, and the tiger’s claw earrings fringed by gold drops of the I 870s, brought back from India as souvenirs to commemorate hunting expeditions.
Left: A page of earring drawings from Cartier’s archive in Paris, dated from March 1874 to May 1874, illustrating some of the great number of shapes, both long and short, fashionable at the time.
FRINGED EARRINGS OF THE 1870s
One of the most distinctive forms of earring in the
18 70s consisted of a circular, oval or otherwise shaped panel variously decorated with enamel, gemstones or chased gold, supporting a graduated fringe of articulated pointed drops. The type was particularly fashionable in England where the favourite surmounts for the tagged drops were oval carbuncles (below), or enamel plaques star-set at the centre with various gemstones (opposite). Fringe or tassel earrings with matching pendants were popular throughout Europe as testified by the archival records of the German jeweller Kreuter dating from 1868 to 1872 (right). More unusual surmounts were occasionally exploited, such as the trapeze-shaped Wedgwood jasper-ware plaque (opposite lower right).
CASCADES OF FLOWERS
Among the plethora of 1870s earrings those designed as cascades of flowers, flowerhead clusters with pampille decorations or sprays of leaves and flowers were particularly favoured by a more conservative public.
Far left, top: A pencil and gouache drawing by Mellerio depicting a flower spray earring. It is interesting to note how the design includes the ear to show precisely how the earring should be positioned on it. Beneath it are two ink designs by Mellerio in the form of flowers with
cascading stamens.
Left: Two ink drawings by the German jeweller Kreuter of 1873, depicting earrings in the shape of cascades of flowerheads and leaves.
Lower left: A gold and turquoise demi-parure comprising a pair of fuchsia earrings and a matching pendant. Note the naturalistic rendering of the blossoms and the use of calibr~- cut turquoises. Though turquoise had been a popular stone for many decades it is only in the
i 870s that it began to be cut en calibre in order to fit the shape of the mount.
Opposite: English diamond-set examples belonging to the same type as those by Kreuter.
BEETLES AND BACCHUS
A gold and Brazilian beetle demi-parure comprising a necklace and a pair of pendent earrings of modified girandole design, probably English, circa 18 70. In this case a ‘novelty’ material — the Brazilian beetles — is combined with an overall archaeological design in a bizarre and unconventional way. The iridescent green beetles are turned into miniature tortoises by the addition of feet, head and tail in gold; on the earrings they are clustered in groups of four.
ARTISTRY OF LALIQUE
Right: A pair of opal, enamel and gold pendent earrings, by Rene Lalique, French, circa I goo, in their original case. The fluid line, the thistle motif, the choice of the opal as a gemstone and the opalescent enamel epitomizes Art Nouveau jewellery. Though earrings continued to be worn at this time, they were not a particularly prominent ornament so the large proportions of this pair of Lalique earrings are an exception rather than the rule. Even within Lalique’s unconventional and daring production of jewellery, they may be regarded as a rarity. The back view (bottom) shows the unusual clip fitting which anticipates the fashionable clips of the thirties.
Upper left: A collection of very simple and relatively small earrings typical of late i gth century and of the very beginning of the loth century. From left to right: A peridot and diamond cluster earring, the large peridot claw-set at the centre; a diamond earring simply claw set with a brilliant-cut stone; a carbuncle (cabochon almandine garnet) and rose diamond cluster earring, probably by Boucheron; a diamond earring designed as a circular cluster of table-cut stones.

In the first years of the loth century dress
fashions did not change drastically, and
cluster and small pendent earrings
characteristic of the last decade of the 19th century continued to be popular. The few drop earrings produced were of moderate size and in ‘garland’ style, that is, characterized by very delicate garland and fluttering bow motifs, usually mounted with diamonds in millegrain settings. The source of inspiration lay in i 8th-century France, especially decorative and architectural details such as ormolu furniture fittings and cornices and stucco mouldings. Cartier in particular encouraged his designers to wander through the streets of Paris studying and sketching architectural details. Typical of earrings in this style was the pear-shaped drop, with a coloured gemstone or a diamond briolette, mounted as a swing centre within a garland of small, delicate leaf and flower motifs on a ribbon bow surmount. Other fashionable earrings assumed the form of diamond or coloured stone briolettes on fine articulated chains of millegrain-set diamonds.
Before the First World War
The delicacy of these jewels was enhanced by extensive use of platinum, a white, untarnishable precious metal which was heavy, hard to work and difficult to solder but of great structural strength so that only a little of it was required to produce a sturdy mount.
The desire to set diamonds in a mount whose colour did not alter their whiteness had been felt as early as the 18th century, and since then the traditional metal for diamond setting had been silver. The relative softness of silver, though, required a large amount of metal for the mount and had the great disadvantage of staining the skin and clothing. To overcome the problem, 19th-century jewellers devised a new kind of setting consisting of a laminate of silver and gold: silver at the front so as to set off the colour of the stone to best effect, and gold at the back for extra strength and to prevent the silver from tarnishing. Although platinum had been known as early as the 16th century in Colombia, it had not been extensively used in jewellery before the turn of the century because of the difficulties involved in working it, but from then on it became the favourite metal of the jeweller, and earrings set mainly in platinum were produced until the 1940s.
Around 1915 one can discern a change in the design of earrings from the garland
126 type to a form that anticipates features of 192os earrings. They tend to become longer
and their typical form is that of an elongated baton-shaped motif usually set with dia-
monds, supporting a drop, often a pearl or a larger millegrain-set diamond. Of
course the majority of these earrings continue to possess features typical of earlier
periods: they are entirely white, set with diamonds and pearls, in accordance with the
general preference for monochromatic and pale coloured jewels in vogue since the
late 19th century, and furthermore they continue to display the characteristic delicate
A pair of diamond pendent earrings in the garland style, circa i goo.
millegrain settings and fine foliate details. On the other hand the pronounced elongation and geometrical details foreshadow the designs of the following decade. They also well suited the female silhouette as recently redesigned by the Parisian couturier Paul Poiret, who liberated women from corsets with the introduction of fluid, high-waisted dresses. The emphasis in fashion was on straight, vertical lines which were counterbalanced by long sautoirs and long pendent earrings. An example of earrings where old and new features coexist is a pair of French platinum and diamond pendent earrings. The overall design and the millegrain settings conform to the garland style, while the size and length of the drop, and the geometrical mitre-shaped surmount anticipate earrings of the 1920S. Another interesting example is the elaborate pair of chandelier-design earrings, where the floral and foliate design is typical of the garland style but the size and tassel motifs are already Art Deco in spirit.
It was during these years that the screw fitting to clamp the earring to the lobe, which had first been developed in the last years of the i 9th century, gained popularity. Its advantage over traditional types of fitting was that it avoided the necessity of piercing the lobe, a practice which had begun to be regarded as barbaric. This was symptomatic of the general move towards liberating women from traditional constraints, exemplified in the field of fashion by the rejection of harmful items of clothing such as tightly laced corsets, and in social and political life by the movement to establish votes for women.
Decade by decade: the 1920s
The outbreak of the First World War in 191 ¢ brought a sudden end to the frivolous period of the Belle Epoque. Jewellery production ceased: precious metals and gemstones became scarce; platinum, an important material for the manufacture of nitric acid for explosives and for engine magnetos, disappeared from jewellery workshops; craftsmen turned their skills from jewellery to the armament industry, and women were forced to take up the jobs left vacant by men called to the front. By the end of the war in 1918, the newly emancipated women had adopted an androgynous look: they had shortened their dresses and cut their hair ‘d la garconne’ thus dispensing for the first time in history with what St Paul called their ‘crowning glory.’ Consequently earrings, more than ever, came to play a role of paramount importance by filling the gap between the bob and the shoulders, echoing the simple vertical line of the dress while adding a touch of frivolity and femininity to the new masculine look. During the 192os earrings undoubtedly became the most important form of jewellery, as can be seen in contemporary portraiture, photographs, advertisements, theatre and fashion designs, such as those by Jeanne Lanvin. Furthermore, the great number of surviving 192os earrings indicates both their popularity and copious production.
The common characteristic of all earrings of the early and mid-192os was their very pronounced vertical and geometrical line and the use of enamels and gemstones realized by the combination of precious gemstones such as emeralds, rubies, sapph-

ires and diamonds with semiprecious stones such as onyx, coral, jade, rock crystal,
turquof striking and contrasting colours. These daring new juxtapositions of colours wereoise and lapis lazuli, the latter frequently carved into cylinders, circles, oblong
P. 158 panels and drops. Good examples are the coral and onyx pendent earrings where the
bright red coral drop carved in a floral design is suspended from a long chain of black
onyx baton motifs. The interest in such vivid colours derived from Diaghilev’s Bal-
lets Russes which made such an impact on Paris and London society around 1910:
their bright juxtapositions of colours both in the costumes and stage sets shocked and
Left: a pencil and
gouache theatrical
design by Jeanne
Lanvin, October 1922. Note the long torpedo-shaped pendent
earrings.
Below: a pencil and gouache fashion design by Jeanne Lanvin, March 1924• Note the elongated carved coral torped-shaped pendent
earrings.fascinated audiences and at the same time set the tone for the jewellery and fashion of the following decade.
Besides novel and striking combinations of colour, there were innovative features in the setting and cut of stones. The favourite new style of setting gems was the `pave’, in which the gems paved the whole surface of the mount. This was often achieved by cutting the stones to fit the required shape of the mount and of the decorative pattern. It is clearly visible in the long pendent earrings designed by Boucheron, where emeralds, rubies and sapphires are cut with domed surfaces to fit into the stylized floral design on a diamond ground. It is interesting to note that besides the interest in contrasting colours emphasis was also placed on the difference between matt and polished surfaces, something that can be seen once again in the illustrated earrings by Boucheron; diamonds provide a sparkling surface while the coloured gemstones provide the matt.
It is not surprising that earrings such as these, possessing most of the novel features of the time (the pronounced elongated line, the stylized, almost geometrical, floral pattern and the juxtaposition of colour and texture) were selected for the Exposition International des Arts D6coratifs et Industrielles Modernes in 1925, an exhibition held in Paris with the purpose of presenting to the public novel and modern design. It is from the abbreviated title of the exhibition, ‘Art Deco’, that the popular name for the style of the mid- i 92os and early 193os derives.
Although jewellers working in this style found sources of inspiration in the artistic traditions of countries as exotic and far apart as Egypt and China, Persia and India or Japan, the most influential eastern tradition for earrings was that of China. Chinese jade plaques carved and pierced in traditional Chinese motifs of gourds, leaves and peonies, and symbolic Chinese ‘Bl’ were imported directly from the East and mounted by famous western jewellers as long earring pendants. The great popularity of this type of earring is demonstrated by its appearance in numerous variations in the pages of earring designs of the time by Cartier London. Green jade combined with stones such as onyx and diamonds suited the striking colour schemes of Art Deco —green, black and white — and offered an interesting combination of matt and polished surfaces. Besides exploiting Chinese-crafted materials, jewellers also frequently included in their earrings imitative Chinese motifs such as stylized pagodas and lanterns. The latter is clearly recognizable in the design of a pair of French emerald and diamond pendent earrings of the mid- 19 2os reproduced here.
Another feature typical of pendent earrings of this time is that they are always mounted in platinum and, unlike some earlier types of earrings, are provided with stud rather than screw fittings. These consist of a prong soldered at the back of the earring, which is inserted into the pierced earlobe and secured by a small, usually hexagonal, plate. It is released by a spring mechanism triggered by pressing a little metal tongue projecting from the edge of the plate. This new type of fitting was more secure, and was desirable for several reasons. Firstly, women now led a much more active and dynamic life, and precious earrings might be worn at night while dancing to the frenetic rhythms of the Charleston; secondly, they were very fragile: as has been mentioned, a great number of earrings were set with long thin plaques carved in semiprecious stones such as jade, which could crack if dropped; and thirdly, it was unobtrusive, a most important feature now that the back of the ear was visible with the newly cropped bob. All Cartier’s examples seem to have been attached in this way.
In the late 1920S long pendent earrings continued in favour, but they can be distinguished from their earlier counterparts by their fuller, usually triangular or lozenge-shaped outline reminiscent of a chandelier, hence the name ‘chandelier
P. 153 earrings’. This tendency is clearly visible in the magnificent pair of pearl and diamond earrings made by Cartier in London in 1928. Their shape is undoubtedly inspired by a crystal chandelier with central drop, stylized sconces and candles. A
P. 16o, second development is the gradual submergence of colours, to be replaced by the
r61 whiteness of pearl and diamonds. Contrast was achieved by combining in the setting a variety of diamonds of different cuts: baguettes, marquise, trapeze, crescent-, triangular-, pear-shaped, and brilliant-cut diamond, all of which reflect light in different ways. Coloured gemstones did not entirely disappear; a beautiful example is the bell-shaped pair of earrings set with diamonds and Indian ruby beads, by Dray-son of London. It is interesting to note how the choice of the gemstone influences the design of the earring, reminiscent of a bell-shaped Jaipur enamel ear pendant.
Towards the end of the decade the decorative arts were inspired by motifs deriving from industry and mechanical instruments: stylized motifs of nuts and bolts set with diamonds appear in earrings. Versatility became appreciated and jewels were constructed to be worn in different ways: a pair of bracelets could be combined to form a fashionable bandeau or sautoir and earrings could be combined together on a brooch mount, as in the last example shown on p. 159•
The 1930s
The 193os are characterized by a revolutionary innovation in the history of earrings:
the clip fitting. From Antiquity to the beginning of the loth century, the only way of
wearing an earring was to insert it or its suspension hook in a hole pierced in the lobe.
As we have already seen, in the early loth century the practice of piercing ears came
to be considered barbaric, and this prompted the use of the screw fitting as an altern-
ative. But although this did avoid piercing the lobe, it was not adequate to support
heavy earrings. The clip fitting of the 193os finally allowed women to wear heavy
earrings without piercing their ears, and moreover, by securely clasping the lobe,
enabled the earring for the first time to expand upward to decorate the upper part of
64, the ear. Rosettes, stylized flowerheads, shells, cornucopias, ribbons, spirals, comets,
165 stylized wings and curled leaves decorating the upper lobe were among the favourite
earclips. In many cases, the upward curl of the design following the natural line of
the ear meant designing one earclip for the right ear and another for the left, so that A pair of stained blue chalcedony, sapphire and diamond earclips, probably by Belperron, circa 1935, each designed as a foliate motif, from the collection of jewellery of the Duchess of Windsor.
they were not interchangeable. The advertisement for Boucheron in the magazine Femina of March 1934 underlines the elegance of the new compact diamond earrings; they were well suited to the hairstyles of the time, which could either be short or long but had the hair gathered at the top or back in a bun and brushed away from the ears in fluid waves.
The ever fashionable hoop earring was also adapted to the new fitting: an open circle securely clipped to the lobe, giving the impression of passing through a nonexistent hole. These clips, continuing the late 1920S trend, were set with variously cut diamonds in white metal mounts: white monochromatic jewels were still all the rage, coloured precious and semiprecious stones being used only sparingly to pick out the design. They often came as a set with the most characteristic jewel of the 1930s, the double-clip brooch the design of which they repeated on a reduced scale.
Although compact earclips were most popular at the time, the fashion for pendent earrings never completely died out and sometimes these 193os earclips were provided with a pendant, a tassel, a drop, or a cascade of ribbons which could be attached to the lower part of the clip to make it more suitable for formal occasions, thus continuing the use of ‘versatile’ jewellery.
For evening wear during this period, long pendent earrings, again set with multicoloured gemstones, were in favour, their voluminous shapes distinguishing them quite clearly from 192os examples. They tend to expand along the horizontal axis and lose the typical vertical character of the previous decade. Different and unusual cuts for the stones continued to be exploited for coloured stones as well as for diamonds, a good example being the two pairs of pendent earrings by Cartier London, 1931-32, set with aquamarines. By the late 193os established firms were already anticipating motifs and designs which were to gain importance in the following decade. This is well exemplified by the pair of citrine and diamond pendent earrings made in 1937 by Cartier London, which are long and voluminous in form, set in yellow gold with diamonds and citrines of various shades of russet and golden yellow, something which heralds the use in I 940s jewellery of attractive coloured gemstones of comparatively low intrinsic value — citrine, aquamarines, amethysts.
The 1940s
By 194o earclips were predominant everywhere. They had large gold surfaces, replacing those set with diamonds, and more sculptural shapes such as fluttering ribbon bows, bouquets of flowers and fan-shaped motifs in contrast to the geometrical lines of the 193os. After forty years of the supremacy of platinum in jewellery, gold came back on a large scale, and it is interesting to look at major jewellers’ archives, where the transition from platinum to gold coincides with the new decade. This is very clear in the records of Boucheron Paris, where earrings produced until August 1938 are mounted in platinum, but from then on always in yellow gold. The preference for gold in jewellery also had an economic reason: at the outbreak of the war platinum was again requisitioned by the armaments industry and the jeweller had to make the most of the scarce gold on the market. The regulations controlling the use of precious metals were extremely strict, especially in France. Anyone who wished to commission a piece of jewellery in gold had to supply the raw material of which twenty per cent would go to the state. Consequently jewellery was made of very thin gold, frequently of low carat. At the same time, the irregular supply of precious gemstones, such as diamonds from South Africa and rubies and sapphires from Burma and Siam, caused a scarcity on the market. This prompted the resetting of gemstones mounted in older pieces of jewellery and the widespread use of synthetic rubies and sapphires. When precious stones were used they were either small and inexpensive or (in the case of sapphires and rubies) synthetic. Semiprecious gemstones were favoured — topaz, aquamarine, amethyst and citrine being relatively cheap yet often large in size and highly effective. In spite of the great difficulties in the turmoil of war, jewellery remained a valuable source of portable capital, and therefore went on being designed, produced and sold. The angular geometrical designs of the late 1930s were not entirely discontinued. This may be seen in mitre-shaped earclips, where the accentuated geometrical design corresponds with 193o earclips, but the choice of stones, usually citrines and small rubies, heralds the new style. As in all periods of transition one finds old and new elements merging together.
The change is clearly visible if one looks at a page of Boucheron’s archival records.
P 171 Among the designs registered for 193 8 one finds earclips characterized by rigid and geometric forms (such as no. 11.306 and no. 35.354216) and a severe linear inverted U-shaped earclip, set with calibre-cut rubies. From 1940 onwards all the designs are naturalistic, and the success and popularity of the curled leaf earclip in polished gold is attested by its consecutive orders. According to the records this model was repeated and sold 14 times from December 1941 to September 1945. Another motif was an attractive gem-set flower spray held together by fluttering rib-
p. 167 bon ties. All the naturalistic earclips are fairly compact in form, filling the lobe or following the contour of the ear. Characteristically they continue to present rather stiff features lacking movement and fluidity: the ribbon ties knotted in bows are always realized in wide surfaces of polished gold which contribute to a bold and static impression. Other favoured motifs displaying similar characteristics are rosettes and plain ribbon bows such as in the design by Mauboussin, rosette and ribbons combined together, and scrolled drape motifs. A particularly striking example of the lat-
e. 166 ter type was produced by Hoeffer & Trabert, the American branch of Mauboussin; they are typically asymmetrical and rigid in design with a scrolled surface of polished white gold and a large step-cut aquamarine at the centre, the border set with small rubies and diamonds. They are accompanied by a large brooch of identical design set with an extremely large central aquamarine, which reflects an American preference for large and flamboyant jewels. The set of earclips and matching brooch or clip is a typical feature of this period. Such heavy brooches, worn on the lapel of tailored suits, had completely supplanted the double clip brooch which had been so popular in the 1930s.
Though compact earclips were the favourite type of ear ornament, pendent earrings were not completely dismissed. The extant examples and records in archives indicate that the pendent element is often very flimsy compared to the bold surmount often consisting of two chains with various terminations such as a cone or gold beads. One sees this, for instance, in earclip with a gold scrolled surmount supporting fine chain drops, which have to be regarded more as minor decorative elements than as pendants in their own right since they are not at all in proportion with the volume of the surmount. Again this is visible in earrings by Mellerio, both those made in 1946, set with a large topaz held by two chains tied in a knot which hang down as pendants, and those of stylized cornucopia design of 1947 which suspend five bead chains. Further evidence may be found in Boucheron’s archive designs of 1943, where tubular chains of articulated links form the pendent element of entwined ribbon surmounts. Besides earrings, necklaces and bracelets were often decorated with chain tassels similar to those found on pendent earrings. A few earrings with more voluminous pendants were also created, such as those formed of two chains of gold graduated disc motifs by Boucheron, or the ‘Ferroniere’ earrings of 1944 by Mellerio, designed as a graduated line of curled gold wire. Although attractive, these long earrings did not gain the same popularity as the compact earclips.
In the mid-194os there was a vogue for light-hearted earrings, amusing and frivolous designs like the small pendent watches with the dial in a border of calibre-cut sapphires designed by Van Cleef & Arpels, or miniature buckle and belt motifs commonly known asj’arretieres.
As the 194os decade was coming to its close, earclips began to show greater movement and lightness, with gold surfaces being broken up in woven patterns or worked into twisted rope motifs combined with coloured gemstones such as turquoises and amethysts; naturalistic patterns of flowers characterized by a greater sense of movement began to prevail over scrolled drape motifs, heralding the design of the new decade made between 1945 and 1950., the 195os.
Four designs from a catalogue by Van Cleef & Arpels, Part of a page of earring design of the 1950s from Boucheron Archives, showing the variety of shapes fashionable at the time.
The 1950s
The hairstyles of the i 95os gave women complete freedom to wear their hair piled on the top of the head, knotted on the nape in a tight chignon or in short or medium-length coiffures brushed away from the ears-, all these styles were appropriate for displaying both long pendent earrings and compact clips. After a decade in which large surfaces of yellow or red gold and clips of bold, stiff and sculptural design had reigned supreme, long pendent earrings set with opulent rainfalls of diamonds in white metal mounts returned triumphantly.
The economic boom which followed the deprived war years, coupled with the desire to celebrate a return to a more relaxed and uninhibited life-style, led to the development of an aesthetic in design which aimed at free, light and functional lines. Jewellery abandoned the straight, angular lines of Art Deco, and the large bulky forms of the I 94os, and evolved new, light, curvy, aerodynamic shapes which conveyed a sense of movement. The sources of inspiration were extremely varied, as were the ways they were interpreted; naturalism, abstraction, exoticism and conventionalism happily coexisted to suit the different tastes of women, who were free to choose whatever style they preferred after the many years of uniformity of fashion during the war.
The feminine ‘new look’ launched by Dior in 1947 remained, with slight variations, in fashion for a decade, and the exuberant lines of his evening gowns characterized by narrow waists, frothy and puffy ample skirts, and above all the generous d6collet6 and pointed, heart-shaped necklines, prompted the production of a vast selection of pendent earrings of curvy, free and informal line. Diamonds were, without any doubt, the gemstone par excellence for these important creations and maintained their supremacy throughout the 195os. They suited the rich brocades, embroidered silks and precious laces of evening dresses, and were an ideal companion to the mink coat, then at the height of its popularity, by adding a touch of glitter to the face surrounded by the dark gleam of a fur collar.
The great variety of forms included all sorts of curved and fluid shaped surmounts, supporting long and voluminous articulated tassels or cascades of similarly cut diamonds. The design of the surmount was extremely varied, sometimes ngthe clip reviv-
I 1 inspiration, sometimes opting fora more naturalistic form, and
P of 1930s i
sometimes choosing abstract shapes inspired by contemporary experiments in the visual arts. Rosettes, entwined ribbons, curved leaves, flowerheads, scrolls and question marks, turbans, shooting stars and fans are just a few of the motifs for surmounts, while below would hang articulated drops reminiscent of waterfalls, cascades of leaves, festoons, waterdrops, tassels and clusters of flowers. Glittering earrings drew attention to eyes made languid and feminine by heavy lines of eyeliner pointing up at the sides. A magnificent example is that designed by Van Cleef & Arpels with a I 930s inspired rosette surmount above a rich and fluid cascade of baguette and pear-shaped diamond drops. Pearls were as much a favourite as diamonds, and earrings designed as a scrolled surmount with a pearl drop or a pearl suspended from a chain of baguette diamonds were produced in many variations. Although overshadowed by the popularity of diamonds, coloured stones such as emeralds, rubies and sapphires often added a touch of colour to otherwise monochromatic evening creations.
The metal used for these important creations de grande soir was invariably white. Platinum returned, white gold was widely used, and palladium, the lightest metal of the platinum group, made its appearance: lightness of the mount was an essential factor in the creation of these long and voluminous pendent earrings which otherwise for lightness is the practice, in the early 195os, of channel-setting small baguette diamonds in rail-like mounts, while towards the end of the decade the stones were held in place by minute claws. It was a pride of the great jewellers to create mounts where the metal was so reduced that it was practically invisible.
Although pendent earrings were the most fashionable form of ear ornament for evening wear, compact earclips were also popular, and many of the examples described above were designed so that the long drop (up to 6 or 8cms) could be detached and the surmount worn by itself. Other diamond-set short earrings assumed the shape of turbans, helixes or flowerhead clusters. A favourite design, simple yet very successful, consisted of a single pearl or mabe pearl surrounded by a foliate border of variously cut diamonds, while more elaborate examples assumed the shapes of exotic diamond flowers such as fuchsias and orchids, with a short pearl drop. A particularly
P. 174 successful model was designed by Van Cleef & Arpels in the late i 94os as a stylized fuchsia with diamond petals and short pearl drop: it gained great favour in the 1950s and its popularity continues today with slight alteration. The same may be said of the diamond-set turban supporting an acorn drop mounted with pearls often of different
P. 175 colours, designed by Verdura in 1953.
The great majority of these earrings, both long and short, were provided with a clip or, less frequently, with a screw fitting. Pierced ears were definitely out of fashion in the fifties, probably not because they were thought to be wrong in any way, as in the early part of the century, but because of the unsightly effect of a pierced earlobe when earrings were not worn. Indeed they came to be considered socially improper for the well-to-do lady and confined to the lower classes. Women who had already had their ears pierced concealed the holes with clip on earrings.
Four designs in pencil and gouache by Boucheron, March—September 195 5. The first has a rosette
surmount suspended with a cascade of baguette and brilliant-cut
diamonds, the second is designed as a stylized leaf supporting a cascade of baguette diamonds; the third and fourth are also cascades set with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds, the last supporting a larger brilliant-cut diamond drop.
Yellow gold was the favourite material for daywear earrings which were usually short, in the shape of rosettes, fans, hoops of Creole inspiration, leaves of stylized or naturalist form, spirals, turbans, florets, helixes and clusters, at times decorated with drops and tassels. The ribbons and bows of the i 94os continued in lighter and often informally sketched forms, often combined with leaves and sprays of flowers. Typical of these earrings of the 195os was the varied and imaginative use of the metal, worked into corded wires, pleats, passementeries, woven or fretted patterns and tubular or plated chains sparingly set with small diamonds or coloured stones such as turquoises, sapphires, rubies and emeralds, combined in interesting chromatic contrasts, as seen in the examples designed by Mellerio and Van Cleef & Arpels.
Among the most typical earclips of the time is that designed as a ‘boule’ of gold wire, set with different combinations of gemstones such as rubies and turquoises (the favourite semiprecious stone of the fifties), or rubies and sapphires with diamonds.

The French Revolution in 1789 brought a temporary halt to the output of precious jewels in the country which had until then been the leading producer. Ostentatious adornment was felt to conflict with the revolutionary principles of egalitarism. Moreover, the abolition of the traditional guild system, which in the past had ensured a high standard by regulating the terms of apprenticeship, led to a rapid decline in quality. And finally there was a lack of patronage and a scarcity of precious metals and gemstones. Many French aristocrats, the traditional patrons of French jewellers, fled the country, taking their valuables to sell abroad as a means of livelihood. French jewellers were therefore deprived both of old jewels with gems and precious metals for re-setting and of new imported bullion and gemstones. It was during this time of upheaval that the prized French crown jewels were stolen.
From the French Revolution to Waterloo
Not surprisingly, earrings created at this time reflect the impoverishment of design and production; only inexpensive examples of low artistic value based on Revolutionary motifs are to be found. One design used glass and debris from the demolished Bastille. Another commonly known as boucle dorellleii la guillotine, and favoured in Nantes rather than Paris, consisted of a small guillotine surmounted by a red cap, with a pendant below in the form of a decapitated crowned head.
Fine jewellery staged a gradual comeback during the years of the Directory (1795-99); France began to recover its leadership in the field; new motifs and designs were developed, remaining in favour until the early 19th century.
The new earrings, in line with the general interest in classicism, were designed to complement the ‘A la Grecque’ hairstyles and the fashion for flimsy white dresses inspired by Classical goddesses. (Indeed, the passion for pale, flimsy chemise-dresses with drapery clinging to the body was so great that some ladies even wore their clothes wet to enhance the effect. As a consequence there was an increase in deaths from pneu-
P. 90, 91 monia.) Fashionable earrings of the period were usually large and geometrical, with the emphasis on flat linearity rather than volume. Although quite large, they were usually very light; gold was still scarce and earrings would be cut out of thin sheets, frequently of low carat gold; enamel often took the place of gemstones. Once again, this tendency can be explained partly by the general scarcity of stones on the market, partly by a desire to create earrings which would complement the face without overpowering it with an excess of jewels.
Between 1790 and 1810 two main types can be distinguished. The first is known as the poissarde, so called because it was originally worn by fishwives (poissardes) in the market of Les Halles in Paris. It is characterized by a hinged fitting at the back, either semicircular or S-shaped, running from bottom to top, where it fastens to the front section of the earring. The front is usually in the form of a flat panel or half-A pair of poissarde earrings set with citrines, early 19th century, front and side view. Note the S-shaped hinged fitting running from top to 5()ttom.
hoop decorated with enamel, often pierced and set with a few imitation or semiprecious stones. The second type is a long pendent earring with a combination of flat and extremely thin gold elements linked to each other by means of fine chains. As with the poissardes they are hardly ever set with precious stones but are decorated with polychrome enamel, pierced gold and filigree. One example incorporates marquise-shaped surmounts decorated respectively with grisaille miniature portraits of man and wife in profile on a light blue enamel ground. A double chain connects the surmount with a central element decorated with sentimental imagery: a dove above a pair of red enamel flaming hearts, followed by the inscription Fidel in a garland of blue forget-me-nots and red leaves. Though typical of early i 9th-century earrings, and probably French, to judge from the inscription, the sentimental imagery is an unusual feature. Earrings, unlike other forms of jewellery, are normally purely decorative and hardly ever display the explicitly sentimental motifs which are often found on rings — the traditional symbol of love and eternal union, and a normal betrothal gift since Antiquity.
Earrings of these two types were worn throughout Europe, not only in France. Maria de la Concepcion Rodriguez de Caspe, a lady from Granada, for example, was painted by Jose Gil in 18 16 wearing earrings that have two circular elements each set with a red unfaceted stone, probably coral, connected by fine chains. Once again the typical linearity, lack of volume and absence of precious gemstones are noticeable. Similar examples were also extensively produced in Sicily and in Northern Italy; some measure over 8 cms in length and still remain light, being made of thin 18 carat gold sheets and weighing on average 7 grams. Northern Italian earrings display some distinctive features, in particular a plaque stamped out of a thin circular, oval or rectangular sheet of gold. This is decorated at the centre in relief to simulate a cameo, with the profile of a warrior from Classical mythology. Classical martial imagery, such as Mars and Bellona, both war-deities, were popular subjects during Napoleon’s campaigns in Northern Italy of 1796-97. The borders, however, present a characteristic form of decoration with small hollow hemispherical motifs imitating beaded wirework, filigree, palmette and flowerhead motifs.
The coronation of Napoleon in 1804 and the creation of a grand Imperial court prompted demand for extremely important jewels. The overall design of earrings remained unchanged, but gold and enamel were replaced by precious stones, dia-
P. go monds being again in favour. This can clearly be seen in a pair of diamond pendent earrings, where the general design continues to be long and linear, but fine connecting chains, typical of the earlier gold earrings, have been replaced by a grand chain of brilliant-cut diamonds.
Until the closing years of the i 8th century gemstones had always been mounted in closed settings which did not allow light to pass from behind through the stone. This technique enabled the jewellers to match, modify and intensify the tint of coloured gemstones by placing coloured foils behind the stone, but this greatly reduced the sparkle and brilliance of diamonds. Towards i 80o jewellers, realizing the importance of light for the glitter of diamonds, started to claw- or collet-set them in open mounts, although smaller and rose-cut diamonds and coloured stones continued to be mounted in closed settings. Many pendent earrings of this time are transitional in type, with a large diamond, usually the centre stone, mounted in an open setting and smaller stones, generally in the border, in closed setting.
By the early i 9th century, French supremacy in jewellery design had been reestablished. This was largely due to Napoleon’s enthusiasm for the development of French arts and technology. He regarded the luxury of his court as an aspect of national prestige, not mere frivolity. This led to an immense number of commissions for jewellery, which was then distributed throughout Europe as diplomatic gifts.
It is at this time that complete sets of matching jewels known as parures begin to be worn. They consisted of a necklace, bracelets, a pair of pendent earrings and frequently also a tiara. Amidst such an abundance of gemstones, earrings continued to be simple, the favourites being long pearl or diamond pendeloques on small surmounts; they can be seen being worn by the Empress Josephine and other members of the imperial family in portraits by David, Gerard and Regnault. Another favoured type consists of a cluster with a large gemstone or cameo at the centre within a border of pearls or diamonds, often holding a similarly set pear-shaped drop. This is well represented by a pair of diamond and emerald briolette earrings, part of the parure probably by Nitot given by Napoleon to Stephanie Beauharnais, a niece of the Empress Josephine, on the occasion of her marriage in i 806. (This is an example of the political role of jewellery; she was marrying the Grand Duke of Baden’s heir, an alliance intended to consolidate the Confederacy of the Rhine.) This parure is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and the bride is portrayed wearing it in a painting by Gerard. The popularity of earrings set with cameos, carved both in shell and hardstone and occasionally in precious stones such as emeralds and sapphires, was a consequence of Napoleon’s interest in carved and engraved gems. Following the Italian campaigns of 1796, when many cameos were brought back to France from Italy, Napoleon opened in Paris a school of gem engraving which boosted the production of cameos of Classical inspiration which were then frequently set in earrings.
1815-1830
The Congress of Vienna brought about the restoration of the legitimate monarchs in Europe in 18 15, and with it the desire to emulate the style of the Ancien Regime in all the applied arts. In jewellery earrings reverted to the form of i 8th-century girandoles and pendeloques, but they were adapted to the more impoverished economic situation. The scarcity of precious metals and gemstones prompted the development of filigree and cannetille which allowed jewellers to make do with very little gold. Both cannetille, named after a type of embroidery made with very fine gold and silver thread, and filigree techniques consist of working fine gold wires into lace-work patterns. Long but light pendeloque and girandole earrings manufactured on the Continent in this way were mainly set with semiprecious stones such as foiled topazes, amethysts and citrines. In England, which had been spared the consequences of the war, more expensive gemstones such as emeralds, diamonds and rubies (but never sapphires at this period) mounted in cannetille settings were often used. These gemstones are almost invariably set in closed collets lined with metallic foils tinted to intensify the colour and improve the match of the stones. The earrings are usually found as part of parures, accompanied by a pair of bracelets and a necklace with a detachable pendant at the centre designed to match the earrings either as a girandole, or, when the earrings are designed as pendeloques, in the form of a lozenge or Latin cross. These parures were extremely popular in the 18 2os and early 1830s: their gold filigree work of burr, tendrils, scrolls and lace-like patterns was often embellished with leaves and florets stamped out of thin gold sheet sometimes in contrasting colours. The two exceptional English examples illustrated, set with rubies and emeralds both comprising a necklace with girandole pendant and a pair of matching earrings, are particularly notable for the quality of the gemstones and for the pristine condition of the cannetille work, something which has rarely survived intact because of its lightness and fragility. The overall design of the girandoles, elongated in shape and with the central drop longer than the two at the sides, is close to late i 8th-century examples, but the cartouche-shaped surmount of the example set with emeralds, the parsimonious use of gemstones and the fine intricacy of light gold wire and granulation make them typical of their date.
The 183 Os
Around the 1830s long earrings reaching almost the shoulders became extremely popular. The fashion was prompted by changes in dress and hairstyle. Couturiers of the time had launched the fashion for dresses with wide bell-shaped skirts, narrow waists and leg-of-mutton sleeves which expanded sideways out of all proportion, giv-
P. 74 ing the upper part of the female silhouette a marked triangular shape. The head became the focal point of interest for jewellers and milliners: hairstyles became extremely complex, with tight curls and knots of false and natural hair gathered at the top and side of the head and embellished with all sorts of feathers, plumes and jewelled aigrettes. This exaggerated horizontal expansion of female silhouette and overabundance of hairstyle decoration needed to be counterbalanced by long drop earrings which also well suited the very generous decolletees of evening dresses.
The most fashionable earrings of the time were designed as elongated drops measuring up to TO— 12 CMS in length stamped out of thin gold sheet and decorated en
Portrait of a lady wearing a pair of long pendent earrings set with faceted semiprecious gemstone drops, to counterbalance the side expansion of the elaborate hairstyles fashionable in the 183os. By Adele Kindt (Belgian 1804-1884).
• are in shape to match the pendant of the necklace: lozenge-shaped pendants are in most cases accompanied by pendeloque earrings, girandole pendants by similarly designed earrings.
repousse (embossed); their rich scroll, shell and foliate motifs were often applied with minute naturalistic decorative elements in gold of various colours and set with gems. A good example of this type is the pair of torpedo-shaped earrings reproduced on P. 93, decorated with embossed quatrefoil motifs suspended from a shell-shaped surmount.
Some of the earliest examples of repousse earrings are also decorated with applied cannetille motifs in the form of burr and scrolling tendrils and can be regarded as transitional between cannetille and repousse earrings.
By the early 1840s gold repousse earrings had completely supplanted the costly and time-consuming cannetille type. Their lightness was dictated partly by economic considerations and partly by the necessity of keeping such large earrings light and comfortable for the wearer. Repousse earrings were cheap to produce. They were made on mechanical presses and needed only very thin sheets of precious metal, though the repousse work itself was often set with small semiprecious gemstones, turquoises being among the favourites.
If a large stone was used, it was likely to be aquamarine, chrysoberyl, amethyst, topaz or citrine, set within a scrolled border of rich gold repousse work. The aquamarine drops reproduced on p. 95 exemplify the trend particularly well, in that they are extremely long (12 ems approximately) and light (weighing approximately 1 _(we i gh i ng approx i mately 15 grams each) and are set with Brazilian aquamarines of fancy cut, well adapting to the repousse scroll-motif mount.
In Switzerland and Northern Italy, where enamel techniques were mastered at the time, polychrome enamel plaques could replace gemstones.
These earrings might look massive but they were in fact fairly light, as one can tell from the fact that they did not, like the heavy girandoles of the 18th century, require an additional hoop to ease their weight: almost all examples are set with a simple hinged hook fitting into the lobe from back to front.
Typical of English earrings of the time is the widespread use of elongated drops in agate or chalcedony (either left white or stained blue or green) and applied with small semiprecious stones such as garnets and turquoises set in gold floral motifs. These earrings usually came with a matching Maltese cross pendant. There are varying degrees of decoration: some are plain drops carved in hardstone, while others show a greater complexity, with applied decoration of naturalistic inspiration. Similarly designed sets set with diamonds are now less common but we know that they existed.
Also popular in England, where diamonds were more plentiful than in France as a consequence of the more stable political and economic situation, were earrings in the form of diamond pear-shaped drops with a large pearl or diamond swing centre on a cluster of foliate surmount.
The simplest form of earring fashionable at the time had a large pear-shaped drop of semiprecious stone, usually a faceted amethyst or citrine, mounted in a gold collet suspended from a similarly-set single-stone circular or oval surmount.
1840s and 1850s
In the late 184os a new hairstyle with a parting at the centre and the hair brushed to each side of the face and gathered in a knot at the back, totally covering the ears, led to the virtual disappearance of earrings — another indication of the close relationship between hairstyles and earrings. One has only to look at portraits by Wintherhalter and other society painters to see how universal this fashion was. In the middle of the century Queen Victoria was consistently portrayed with her ears covered, and even in catastrophic situations such as those shown in John Martin’s The Great Day of His Wrath (1852) or The Last Judgement (1853), women in the last extremity of distress are depicted with their ears carefully covered by neatly arranged hair at the sides.
The temporary eclipse of earrings is confirmed by the fact that at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, although jewellery was well represented, earrings were not given prominence. Those that were produced at this time were attractive but generally small and compact in design, frequently featuring naturalistic motifs such as flowerhead clusters, bunches of grapes, acorns, and other foliate arrangements chased in gold, set with a gemstone depicting a bud or berry, or carved in coral and ivory. The trend towards naturalism was common to all the decorative arts and Jewellery. Other earrings assumed the shape of crescent hoops or elongated beads. Long gem-set earrings were never worn at important formal occasions because the ears remained completely concealed by the hair and covered by elaborate tiaras in the form
120, 121
A pencil and gouache design for a tiara, bracelet and corsage ornament by Mellerio, mid 19th century. Note the two lateral cascading spray of leaves and flowers which concealed the ears.
1840s and 1850s
In the late 184os a new hairstyle with a parting at the centre and the hair brushed to each side of the face and gathered in a knot at the back, totally covering the ears, led to the virtual disappearance of earrings — another indication of the close relationship between hairstyles and earrings. One has only to look at portraits by Wintherhalter and other society painters to see how universal this fashion was. In the middle of the century Queen Victoria was consistently portrayed with her ears covered, and even in catastrophic situations such as those shown in John Martin’s The Great Day of His Wrath (1852) or The Last Judgement (1853), women in the last extremity of distress are depicted with their ears carefully covered by neatly arranged hair at the sides.
The temporary eclipse of earrings is confirmed by the fact that at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, although jewellery was well represented, earrings were not given prominence. Those that were produced at this time were attractive but generally small and compact in design, frequently featuring naturalistic motifs such as flowerhead clusters, bunches of grapes, acorns, and other foliate arrangements chased in gold, set with a gemstone depicting a bud or berry, or carved in coral and ivory. The trend towards naturalism was common to all the decorative arts and Jewellery. Other earrings assumed the shape of crescent hoops or elongated beads. Long gem-set earrings were never worn at important formal occasions because the ears remained completely concealed by the hair and covered by elaborate tiaras in the form Ink design for a dormeuse earring, Kreuter, Germany, April 1877, front and side view.
of garlands of flowers which framed the face and cascaded in two sprays decorated en pampille down the sides of the head. During the day, bonnets with large brims tied under the chin with wide ribbons made earrings superfluous and difficult to wear; for the same reason brooches ceased to be worn high on the collar where they interfered with the hat ribbon tied under the chin. Simple single-stone earrings — know as dormeuses or ’sleepers’ because they were worn at night to prevent the pierced hole in the lobe from closing — were the only form of earring that continued to be used.

THE TRIUMPH OF THE GIRANDOLE
The other most characteristic form of earring of the i 8th century was the girandole, which was fashionable throughout the whole of Europe. In the early
j 8th century it tended to have a horizontal shape, the three drops more or less of the same size and at the same level, and the central motif clearly defined and simple in design. Later it became more vertical in emphasis with a longer and larger central drop and a more elaborate central motif.
Above and opposite right: Late i 8th-century girandole earrings from Spain, set with emeralds and diamonds, a characteristic feature of Spanish jewellery. The elaborate central motif combines leaves and spray of flowers.
Centre top: French, circa I 76os, set with foiled rubies and diamonds, the drops and the central motif articulated. The combination of rubies and diamonds and the elaborate bow motif place it in the second half of the century.
Middle: English, second half of the T 8th century, set with foiled garnets. Note the rather stiff design and the clearly defined ribbon motif. The colour of the garnets is enhanced by bright pink foiling.
Bottom: Portuguese, circa 1750, set with foiled topazes. The choice of the gemstones — topazes from Brazil, then a colony of Portugal — and the linear and flat design are typical of Portuguese jewellery.
THE ELEGANT PENDELOQUE
A collection of late i 8th-century silver and diamond pendeloque earrings. These examples show some of the many variations of the pendeloque design, from the cluster, ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop (right and opposite above) to the articulated and elaborate swing centre (centre and opposite below). Note the use of silver as setting metal to complement the whiteness of diamonds. As is normal at this time, all gemstones are mounted in closed settings.
IBERIAN STYLE
Right: A gold and hessonite garnet earring, Catalan, probably early i 9th century. The striking design is a development of the traditional pendeloque design with a cluster surmount, an elaborate floral spray centre and an elongated pear-shaped drop. Many examples are extremely long and heavy, requiring special mounts to support their weight.
Opposite right: A collection of i 8th- and i 9th-century gold earrings, Portuguese and Spanish. These earrings exemplify the persistence, in the Iberian peninsula, of the pendeloque motif based on
surmount, ribbon bow and elongated drop. The great variety of design includes the traditional pendeloque conceived as a cluster surmount set with emeralds or rose diamonds supporting a bow and a pear-shaped drop; the ‘Brincos a Rainha’ with its wide, almost circular, drop with swing centre, entirely pierced in high carat gold; the elongated spindle-shaped earrings chased in gold with scroll motifs known as ‘Fuso’, and the bow pendants (centre of page).
Detail of a portrait of Mary, Countess of Macclesfield, by Francis Coates, exhibited at the Society of Artists in 1763 and much admired by Horace Walpole. The Countess is wearing fashionable diamond girandole earrings.
REFINEMENTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Opposite far left: A Portuguese silver and white topaz earring of girandole design, first half of the i 8th century, and (below) front and back view of a diamond girandole earring mounted in silver. The back view shows three typical features of the girandole: the closed setting of the stones; the articulated and detachable drops that allow the earring to be worn in a reduced form; and the additional hoop, through which a ribbon was threaded and secured to the hair.
This page:
Illustrations from 18th-century literature on earrings. Top: An extract from the ‘Discours Preliminaire’ of the Recueil des Dessins by A. Duflos, 1744, where the author expresses his concern about the excessive weight and elaborate design of girandole earrings. Above, left to right: French engraved designs of two girandole earrings and one pendeloque earring by F. LeFebvre (active circa 1635-57); a page of French engraved designs for six girandoles by Pouget, 1762; six engraved designs for pendeloques and girandoles by J. Quien, 1710, published posthumously in London in 1762; and two designs for a two-stone or double-cluster earring, by Duflos, 1744, a fashionable form that cannot be classified as either girandole or pendeloque.
Centre left: A page of French designs by Maria,
175 1-70, engraved by Babel, illustrating fashionable pendeloques and girandoles.
Below left: Four engraved designs for pendeloque and girandole earrings, by an anonymous Italian, circa 1770.
THE PENDELOQUE: Centre right: An unusual and colourful pair of earrings, late T 8th century, set with
THEME AND VARIATIONS cornelian plaques within diamond borders.
Right: A pair of diamond pendent earrings, Russian, mid-i 8th century. The interest in large cushion-shaped brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in closed silver settings is a typical i 8th-century feature.
Opposite: Four pairs of pendeloque earrings mounted in silver or gold and silver with colourless gemstones such as white topazes and rock crystal.
Opposite far right: A pair of diamond pendeloque earrings, English, late i 8th century. Note the large rose diamonds in silver closed settings and the rather severe design typical of many English creations of the time. And (bottom far right) a pair of topaz pendeloque earrings and a matching devant de corsage, Portuguese, mid-i 8th century, interesting for its combination of light yellow and foiled orange stones.
Below: A collection of English diamond jewellery, late i 8th century, comprising typical pendeloque earrings and a flowerhead dress ornament.
OUT OF THE MAINSTREAM
Below: A mid i 9th-century portrait by Joaquin Argasot y Juan of a Spanish lady wearing a pair of large gold and gem-set earrings of girandole inspiration, proving how long earrings of this type continued to be popular in the Iberian Peninsula. Their size explains why additional fittings were required.
Right: Silver and rose diamond pendeloque earrings, probably Flemish; and gold Iberian earrings set with topazes, of modified girandole design, similar to those in the portrait above.
Opposite, top left to bottom right: Gold and gem-set Spanish earrings, a variation of the Catalan type but with a much more slender outline; Catalan earrings; gold Iberian earrings set with emeralds; and garnet Catalan earrings. All on this page late i 8th/early i 9th century.
PEARLS, GEMS AND GLASS
Below: A pair of seed pearl and ruby girandole earrings, Southern Italian, mid-18th century. The use of minute seed pearls threaded on a filigree structure is a typical feature of many Southern Italian and Adriatic jewels of low intrinsic value. Even so the design presents the most typical features of the girandole: cluster surmount, bow and detachable drops.
Opposite: A pair of gilt-metal and glass girandole earrings, probably Italian mid- i 8th century, using copper coloured aventurine glass with gold spangles cut and faceted as if it were a precious stone. Glass paste of various colours was frequently cut and set in i 8th= centuryday jewellery, and even aristocratic ladies who owned precious jewels did not disdain to wear it. The smaller pictures show two pairs of Iberian earrings set respectively with rose diamonds and emeralds, late i 8th century. One is modelled on the traditional girandole, the other on the pendeloque form, which in this region retained their popularity well into the 19th century.
A pair of spectacular Southern Italian gold and seed pearl pendent earrings, late i 8th century. Although this particular type seems to be confined to Southern Italy and the Adriatic regions, its structure conforms to the contemporary pendeloque design. The use of seed pearls had been a typical feature of jewels of this area since the I 7th century, providing an extremely successful and decorative alternative to jewels set with precious gemstones.

Glass is distinguished from other materials by its transparency.
People like glass because of its shine and the way drinker.
glass refracts the light that passes through it. Glass is also extremely practical. It does not allow liquids to permeate it and is a poor conductor of heat. On the other side of course is glass’s only disadvantage — its fragility. Glass today is something modern humankind takes for granted. There is an involved process before glass objects reach the consumer.
Glass is formed by heating various metal oxides and quartz. In addition to the raw materials of glass (quartz and borax), there are also alkaline substances (potassium or sodium oxide). These make the silicates indissoluble.
The right composition of substances for glass is the result of centuries of experience. Glass was probably first made about 4,000 years ago — perhaps discovered in ancient Egypt by chance.
The production of glass was then a relatively straightforward process. The glass-makers first smelted glass in earthenware vessels over an open fire. The glowing pieces of glass adhered together and were then plunged into cold water where they splintered.
These shards of glass-like material were known as frit. The frit was then ground between millstones under powdered when it was smelted once more to achieve the desired result.
This principle was in use until some time after 1500. Old illustrations often show two glass furnaces: one is for the initial smelting of the raw materials and the second for melting the powdered frit.
The production of glass was changed in the eighteenth century in Britain. Coal replaced wood for the glass furnace but this turned the glass yellow from the sulphur dioxide that is released. This meant that glass had to be smelted in a sealed kiln.
This also made it more difficult to keep an eye on the smelting process. A solution was found by producing softer glass mixtures.
Means of decoration
Glass can be decorated in a number of ways. The most direct method is to apply layers of other glass or to mark the surface during the glassblowing process while the glass is soft. Such results depend on the skill and artistry of the glassblower. Glass has been blown since early times and had reached a state of high art in Roman times.
There are various waysin which glass can be decorated during blowing. One way is to add small pieces of glass or `prunts’. Another way is to spin the glass of the same or contrasting colour so that it forms a spiral on the glass surface. Many of the varying techniques are based upon centuries old traditions.
An entirely different way of decorating glass is to enamel or paint it.
This technique does not rely on the artistry of the glassblower. This is done with either ‘cold’ or fired enamel. Glass can also be gilded with precious metals such as silver or gold. Further ways of decorating glass are by cutting or engraving it. Glass is engraved with a diamond which ‘draws’ a design on its surface and it can also be stippled (a Dutch invention) with either a diamond or softer stylus.
Different effects can be created by making either open or dense stipple marks.
Glass has been cut since early times but etching was discovered by the Swede Sheele who notice that the acidic gases of hydrogen fluoride ate in to glass. Glass can also be ‘etched’ by sand-blasting. Encapsulation is done by placing objects in glass while it is still soft that then become fixed in the solid glass. This method was especially popular in Europe between 1800 and 1850.
Glass production from east to west
The production of glass spread to other countries from Egypt around 1000 BC. The techniques were extensively improved between the sixth and second centuries before Christ.
A very important discovery was made at Sidon in Syria in the first century before Christ – the glassblower’s ‘blowing iron’.
This enabled objects to be made of thin glass. It was a technique that spread throughout the Roman empire to Italy and Spain to the west but also to Gaul (France), Britain, and Germany in the north. The major glassblowing centres were established along the Rhine and in Gaul (France).
Production in the east
In common with many other techniques, glass-making was also largely forgotten following the fall of the Roman empire but this was not true in the east. The most important glass-producing region was Byzantium where new techniques were also developed that can be seen in cut and engraved goblets, bottles, ewers, and mosaics of the era.
Arabs were extremely fond of glass embellished with gilt or enamel and major Arab glass centres were Damascus and Aleppo in Syria.
Very fine coloured glass goblets, bottles, ewers, lamps, and dishes were made in these towns between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. These were often decorated with bright painting.
Persian glass-making took over the leading position in the fifteenth century and Persian glass even influenced Spanish glass. Surviving Persian glass from this era consists mainly of bottles of green or blue glass.
Medieval European glass
Glass production in the former western Roman empire after its fall only survived in Gaul (France), Germany, Flanders, and Britain.
In the early Middle Ages the preference was for decoration with grooves, flattening, and decoration with ‘threads’
of glass. Several new types of object appeared such as `trunked’ and ’studded’ beakers. Otherwise just simple medicine bottles were made from green glass that was far from perfect.
Glass production even went into decline in the ninth century and many in Christian countries regarded glass as a heathen product. After all the heathens used bottles for their ‘pagan’ burials. Pope Leo IV even banned the liturgical use of glass. Not everyone was of the same opinion.
Bishop Isidorus of Seville in Spain wrote a treatise about glass based on Naturalis Historiae, written by the Roman Plinius. The monk Theophilus wrote an extremely important work about glass —probably during the late tenth or early eleventh century, somewhere along the Rhine.
In a piece about the art of glass he described the constituents of Roman and Asian glass, wrote down many legends, and described the process of glassblowing in great detail.
Venice
Sometime around the birth of Christ, glass was produced in northern Italy. The technique was maintained by cloistered orders and spread from these during the Middle Ages throughout Europe. It was in this region that the one of the most famous glass-making centres was established.
Benedictine monks in Venice specialised in making bottles by the year 1000. Following the conquest and pillage of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204, many Byzantine glassblowers sought to escape to the powerful trading city of Venice.
They strengthened Venetian glass-making with techniques such as glass mosaics. The first thin and hollow glass-ware and first glass jewellery were made in Venice in about 1250. Soon afterwards the production of glass became a monopoly of the Venetian state. The glassblowing works though were forced to move outside the city. With their extensive use of fire they threatened the safety of the city and hence were moved to the island of Murano.
The first reports of exports of glass from Venice are also recorded around 1250. They also made optical glass for spectacles and window glass.
A great deal of glass incorporating soda from burnt seaweed was made in the fourteenth century. The Venetians also began to make latticinio glass with thin white threads around 1400. The Venetians were also known to make golden coloured glass by chemical means and other colours too with copper and cobalt.
They also decorated their glass by `burning’ colours into it. This is very characteristic of fifteenth century Venetian glass. In the sixteenth century the Venetians mainly decorated their glass with patterns of opaque white threads. Vegetal and abstract designs were also created on the thin-walled soda glass.
In addition to clear cristallo glass, Venice also made opaque white lattimo glass that was translucent but not transparent, millefiori containing tiny rods of coloured glass, and frosted glass with a cracked surface. The glassblowers also produced all manner of decorative forms with glass. The chemical composition of Venetian glass was a secret with severe penalties for anyone who revealed the procedures to make it. Despite this, many Venetian glassblowers left for other parts in the early sixteenth century and became involved abroad in the production of imitations of Venetian glass. Excellent copies of glass d la facon de Venice were made in Spain, France, and the Low Countries. These are so good that it is very difficult to determine whether a piece is made in Venice or elsewhere. The main differentiation is that the metal (body of the glass) of the imitations is not so clear, fine, and thin as that produced on the Venetian island of Murano.
Developments elsewhere in Europe
In Bohemia and Germany they also tried to join in Venice’s success. The glass works there only flourished after the Middle Ages. Many attempts were made in France employing Italian immigrants to make totally transparent and clear glass. Dutch glass makers began to make diamond engraved fluted glasses in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and it was the Low Countries too that made glasses with a characteristic ‘winged foot’. It was also quite common for glass made in one place to be decorated elsewhere.
BOHEMIAN AND GERMAN FOREST GLASS
The extensive forests of Bavaria were home to many glass works. The production area lay within an area bordered by the Thuringia and Bavarian forests, and the Alps and Fichtel mountains. Because of iron and potash in the raw materials the glass produced was mainly green.
New types of glassware were created that were primarily functional with the main output being glass beakers but ink pots and alchemists’ and apothecaries’ jars were also made.
This was often decorated with prunts and molten threads of glass. Glass was also decorated with bizarre relief forms. All these products were small icrean size in the fourteenth and fifteenth century. Larger pieces were noss bt made until the sixteenth century.
The most widespread of these are so maigelein: shallow beakers of blown gas
A 17th century Dutch green Romer glass. This type first appeared in the 15th century.
of which the bottom is pressed inwards. There were also much larger Pasglas measured glasses, beakers in the form of cabbage stalk, beakers with finger grips, and vertically ribbed cylindrical beakers. The classical slim and tall beakers of Bohemian glass were made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Their small stems are externally decorated with prunts of molten glass. The Romer glass was first made in the fifteenth century. These wine glasses were extraordinarily popular in the Rhineland. A bellied glass, shaped like an onion with a curved neck consisting of several plaited tubes of glass also appeared in Bohemia in the late Middle Ages.
ENAMELLING
Every glass works outside Italy strived to improve on Italian glass with their local products but the shape of their glassware is clearly different from that of Renaissance Italy. This is because of different local drinking customs. Wine was drunk in Italy but north of the Alps people mainly drank beer. This caused different demands of glasses. The Humpen beer glasses were made from the middle of the sixteenth century.
At first these were conical in form but later only cylindrical Humpen were made. This latter type had a low sole and sometimes also had a hinged lid. The style of painting was intended to give the impression of an Italian product and this also helped to mask the imperfections in the glass.
Enamelling was commonplace on sixteenth century central European glass. The best period for this form of decoration was reached in the earlier seventeenth century. The quality of glass was then improved through the addition of chemicals.
Another category of glassware was the beakers that bore the owner’s crest of arms.
These were also monogrammed and dated. Others, known as ’state eagle’ Humpen were decorated with the German state arms. Quite separate from these glasses though were the Fichtel mountain ox-head glasses that were painted with pictures of the wooded hills from which the Eger, Main, Naa, and Saale rivers rise. Old and New Testament references, fables, and allegories were also common painted decorations in both the Renaissance and Baroque eras.
Although enamelled glass originally came from Venice it gradually became the speciality of central Europe. This method of decoration was used for more than 250 years.
Spun stem Dutch glass. Spinning a thread of glass of the same or contrasting colour around a glass core is one method of decoration.
Enamel became less expensive in the later seventeenth century so that ‘ordinary’ citizens were able to buy it. Finally it became a product for the masses and when applied to milchglass became a cheap alternative to porcelain.
Finding out the origins of a piece is no easy matter. There are countless different types with regional and local characteristics but these became less pronounced as glassblowers moved to work at different places.
PAINTED TRANSPARENT GLASS
A new manner of decorating hollow glass objects was introduced in the later eighteenth century using transparent enamels instead of opaque ones. The porcelain artist Samuel Mohn of Dresden was the first to use this technique.
His ‘friendship’ glasses are painted with portraits, landscapes, allegories, and verses. He customarily signed his work with Mohn fecit. His son, Gottlob Mohn, established himself in Vienna in 1811 and signed himself G. Mohn in Wien. His first work was the painting of town views.
The Viennese porcelain and glass artist Hothgasser took up this popular subject, working mainly on bell-shaped glasses on long branched stems. He mainly signed his work with his monogram between the ‘teeth’ of the branched stem.
Sometimes though he used his full signature on his glasses. These were given as a present or friendship’s token, or served as souvenir. Kothgasser’s glasses with playing cards were very popular around 1875. Kothgasser’s work was in great demand and hence widely copied but reproductions are easily spotted by the naive compositions and lack of technique.
BOHEMIAN ENGRAVED GLASS
The process of engraving was already known during Roman times but the ancient technique was re-invigorated during the sixteenth century in southern German with fresh demand for this style of decoration. This arose because of exports of engraved crystal from Milan. The so-called ‘mountain’ crystal was rare and hence expensive. This led to people in southern Germany deciding to apply the decorative technique used with crystal on glass. Lehmann One of the most famous engravers is
Kasper Lehmann, engraver to the court at Prague. Until recently he was even deemed to have been the ‘inventor’ or glass engraving.
Engraved ginger glass, circa 1700. Although known since Roman times, it was not re-introduced until the 16th century, in southern Germany. Engraved glass became very popular in the north of the Low
Countries.
He established himself in Prague around 1600 and in 1609 he gained a monopoly from the king for the engraving of glass. Lehmann had a number of students, including Georg Schwanhardt, the most important of them, who returned to his home town of Nuremberg following Lehmann’s death. There were many engravers working in this town but each had his own area of speciality.
Schwanhardt mainly worked with Venetian-type goblets, although Venetian glass itself is not suitable for engraving because it is too fragile. Glass with lime added was used for engraving. This sparkling glass was clear and pure with strong refractory properties. It became known as Bohemian crystal.
Bohemian ‘crystal’ was discovered between 1670 and 1680 more or less simultaneously in three glashutten in southern and northern Bohemia. Knowledge of the process spread quickly throughout Bohemia.
Painting with enamel was depressed here by engraved Bohemian ‘crystal’. The first decorations were copies of motifs used in Venice. Because of the high quality of the new material it quickly became a formidable competitor for Venetian glass. Traders not only succeeded in selling Bohemian glass throughout Europe, it was also shipped to other parts of the world.
When the engraving switched to the Baroque style Bohemian glass was even more successful.
SILESIAN ENGRAVED GLASS
The successful formula of Bohemian glass works was also followed in Silesia. The works of Count Schaffgotsch were very important to this region. The glashut in Hermesdorf in particular produced some fine pieces. This was due to the engraver Friedrich Winter who engraved a series of friendship goblets and beakers there after 1690.
The engraved glass from the works at Lobkowitz in Wiesau and Warmbrunn were also of exceptionally high quality. Silesian glass is characterised by the narrowing at the bottom of the drinking vessel. Although Bohemian glass itself was of higher quality, the exceptional Silesian engraving was better than that of Bohemia.
Glass production was advanced following Prussia’s capture of Silesia from Austria in 1742. Glass production in Silesia and Bohemia began to become less significant in the mid eighteenth century due to a number of factors. These included a smaller market through European wars that had caused economic collapse and also a reduction in the size of the market through the development of porcelain and lead crystal. Superb glass goblets made way for simple beakers. Both form and decoration were simplified and more suited to the new circumstances.
The Bohemian glass industry searched for a way to emerge from the crisis.
One of their developments was milchglas that was supposed to compete with the rapidly growing market for porcelain. Entire sets of tableware and drinking services were produced from 1760 to the mid nineteenth century by works at Harrachov in Bohemia.
The opaque ‘milk glass’ was much cheaper than porcelain but could emulate it in both form an enamelled decoration.
GERMAN DEVELOPMENTS
The discovery of the addition of lime to forest or potash glass in Bohemia was also important for the German glashutten.
This was especially true of those works of the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg which bordered Bohemia. Silesian experience in both glass making and engraving was utilised at Brandenburg works at Potsdam, Berlin, and later also at Zechlin. Potsdam attracted Martin Winter, brother of the highly regarded Helmdorf engraver.
The glass specialist and alchemist Johann Kunckel was given the task of researching the best composition for glass. He is credited with discovery of Zwischengoldglas or ‘gold-ruby’ glass. Other gifted engravers also worked for Brandeburg glass makers in addition to Winter.
Glass from this time is solid and heavy. The foot or stem, drinking vessel, and lid were decorated with leaf motifs. Pieces were lighter after 1720 under the influence of the engraver Elias Rosbach. Zechlin glass though (which had gilt medallions melted into its surface) remained fairly robust.
Knowledge of how to produce Bohemian glass spread via Nuremberg northwards. Important centres were established at Brunswick and Hesse, while the glashutten of Thuringia were also important parts of the German glass industry. Just as with porcelain, the electors of Saxony also initiated establishment of glassworks in their domain.
The Saxon works copied Bohemia so precisely that their glassware closely resembles Bohemian glass. Saxon glass though uses slightly different forms, such as horizontal, diagonal, and faceted rims on the stem and underbelly of the bowl. There is a difference too in the gilded relief and gilded engraving
‘RUBY GOLD’ GLASS
In addition to engraved glass, Bohemian glass works also produced ‘ruby gold’ glass or Zwischengoldglas during the prime era for Baroque style. This type of glass had been known in Roman times but forgotten. Following its rediscovery by Johann Kunckel in Brandenburg, Bohemian glass makers also started to make it. The same type of decoration was employed as was used for Bohemian `crystal’.
This consisted of engraving, silver gilt or gilt leaf motifs placed between two layers of glass. Only a few pieces were double layered at that time.
English lead crystal and Dutch glass
Around 1750, glass that was stabilised with lead became important in Europe. The heavy lead ‘crystal’ was well adapted to practically-shaped pieces following
Painted glass box, circa 1850. This type of movingly painted glass boxes were made in Friesland in the Low Countries Classical lines. Lead crystal has unique properties.
It is absolutely clear and is decorated in an entirely different way. By use of a diamond cutting disc a large number of facets can be created that cause light refraction — acting as a series of prisms. Dutch glass was extensively engraved with diamond cutters and lead crystal became extremely popular there. After 1750, some exceptional Dutch pieces were made by stippling the glass with a diamond.
The solid goblets used for this purpose were partly imported from Britain.
Nineteenth century glass
Bohemian crystal found a strong competitor with English lead crystal cut glass. This was because the lead crystal was ideally suited to the forms of the fashion for Classicism. The Bohemian glass makers reacted by adopting the English cut-glass technique but Bohemian glass was not suitable for cutting. The consequences were therefore limited and the technique was restricted so that cutting remained solely an extension to engraving. The subjects for engraving were determined by the current fashion and this can be seen by the motifs used.
Count Georg Buquoy of Neugrdtzen in southern Bohemia became very taken with Wedgwood’s ‘Egyptian Black’. In common with Friedrich Egermann in Haida, Neugrdtzen began making black Hyalith glass that was mainly decorated in a golden chinoiserie style.
The wares included carafes, coffee services, dishes, and vases. Egermann created Lithyalin, a different form of opaque glass that resembled jasper and agate. Like these stones it could be facet cut. Egermann’s glass works also used a golden yellow glass paint that he invented. This was used on goblets and beakers from 1820. Egermann’s greatest achievement though was his contribution to the enriching of glass.
With the help of copper he was able to create cheap imitations of expensive
golden-coloured ruby glass. Glass makers sought an ever greater range of colours and forms for their wares. On the one hand they attempted to improve the process of applying coloured glass to a clear glass base while on the other they sought to develop new methods.
This led to a new technique in which several layers of coloured glass were applied to a base. It was a process that had originated in China. By cutting away parts of the different coloured layers, all manner of colour effects could be created. The use of several layers of milchglas was particularly popular. With this, when a pattern had been cut out it was further decorated with enamel.
Bohemian glass companies exported lots of this type of ware in the 1850’s. Around 1820 the Bohemian glassworks also made glass that was smelted with embedded plaster or porcelain with portraits of famous persons. From 1830 onwards the glass market changed radically because of the major changes in how glass was made. Until that time each piece was individually crafted by a glassblower. During the nineteenth century factories began to press mould glass. This process made it possible to mass produce glass making.
The artistic level of the output dropped of course but commercial considerations were generally more important than aesthetic ones. Very few managed to avoid this trend. One who did was the Viennese artist Ludwig Lobmeyr, who owned a quality glass making works in Steinsch6nau. He was one of a group of artists who opposed the levelling down and increasing lack of taste of the mass produced wares.
This group studied ancient and exotic forms of glass and this led to their works making new types of glassware with simple and functional shapes. Before this trend gained wider acceptance though it was consumed in an even more radical movement that swept Europe under the Art Nouveau and Jugendstil names. The artists A. Daum and E. GaI16 gave glass-making back its individual power of expression and returned to the old traditions. In the United States Louis Comfort Tiffany was inspired by oriental and classical glass. His work was widely admired and echoed in Europe.
One glass works that copied his lead was the Liitz works at Klostermiihle in Bohemia.
Glass and jewellery
Glass paste and beads were used for jewellery back in the age of the ancient Egyptians. Alexandria supplied the then known world with glass beads during the
ancient Greek civilisation and during the Roman empire. The strings of beads made with them were of different colours. The glass was decorated with wavy melted threads of lighter-coloured glass. The production of beads spread through Constantinople and the other towns of the Roman empire to Europe.
Venice was an important production centre for glass beads in the eleventh century. Imitation gem stones had been made in Bohemia as early as the fourteenth century. In the eighteenth century
Louis XIV style mirror of the 19th century.
They also started to make glass beads. Production of glass beads had started in the German Nuremberg in the sixteenth century followed by the Fichtel mountains area of Bavaria in the seventeenth century, and soon afterwards by Potsdam and Thuringia.
Bead production of importance got under way in France in the seventeenth century.

Settles and sofas after 1840
The revival of interest in historical styles from the mid-19th century resulted in a multiplicity of designs for all types of furniture, including sofas, which were often made as part of the new salon or parlour suites. A major technical development during this period was use of the coil spring, patented in 1828, which resulted in sturdier, bulkier, and squatter designs that sacrificed form to comfort. These deeply upholstered seats, with their button backs, culminated in the Chesterfield, which was the first fully upholstered sofa.

Seat furniture
The period c. 1860 to (.1880 was in many ways the golden age of upholstery. Stuffing had been growing steadily thicker from the 1840s, and buttons were introduced to prevent the thread holding the stuffing
in place from pulling the covering material. Extra fabric was necessary to create the familiar diamond pattern of buttons or threads characteristic of the deep, luxurious upholstery, with its air of prosperity and comfort, so admired by the Victorian middle classes. The development of the coil spring made increased demands on buttoning. Whereas sofas had previously been stuffed with layers of wadding and horsehair, coiled metal springs were now used. The springs were supported by a layer of hessian webbing, covered with more webbing, which in turn was covered with horsehair stuffing and padding. As a result, Victorian sofas were much more comfortable than early 19th-century examples, but they were also much bulkier; many sofas had button backs to emphasize the new upholstered look. The luxurious effect was emphasized by the use of velvet and other elaborate fabrics. Sofas with their original worn upholstery arc more collectable today than those with high-quality restoration using an inappropriate fabric.
French sofas were generally lighter in design than British examples, since French craftsmen and manufacturers employed such revival styles as Rococo and Louis XVI, making use of giltwood and lighter upholstery fabrics. In the USA, parlour suites on a grand scale were produced by such leading makers as John Henry Belter (1804-63) of New York, who in the 1850s created laminated and moulded rosewood sofas with deep pierced carving. Renaissance Revival suites, with square-backed sofas, were also popular, while the fashion in Europe and the USA for “Turkish” corners gave rise to over-stuffed upholstered sofas with elaborate fringing.
Edwardian sofas of the first two decades of the 20th century borrowed heavily from Neo-classical styles –especially the designs of Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) – and from Regency styles, but managed to avoid the excesses of Victorian interpretations. Suites of chairs with matching sofas were produced; these were generally made from mahogany, or occasionally from walnut or satinwood. Sofas and chairs often had caned backs and sides, with silk or damask upholstery.

•    CHALSES-LONGUES these are not particularly commercial as they can be large and not very comfortable to sit on; examples with good shapes are more popular, as are those that are more heavily carved
•    GILDING good-quality regilding is quite acceptable if well executed– the highlights should be burnished, and the quality of the carving evident; beware of spray gilding – this will have a flat, matt appearance, with a very even coverage
•    RE-UPHOLSTERY the condition of the upholstery should be carefully examined, as seating can be very expensive to re-upholster; furniture with taut webbing is
preferable to that with springing, which tends to give an overstuffed look
•    COLLECTING many sofas and settees were originally part of parlour or salon suites, which are now rarely found complete; three-seater examples are generally more commercial than two-seater