Posts Tagged ‘France’

WINE-GLASS, BLUE GLASS CASED OVER
GLASS, with ACID-ETCHED DECORATION
Benjamin Richardson, England, 1857
I It. 143 mm (563 in.)
Acid Etching: Although acid-etched glasses
arc known to exist from the 17th century,
the process was not generally used in glass-
making until the 19th century, with the
discovery of hydrofluoric acid. Heinrich
Schwanhardt (d.1693), son of the Nurem-
berg engraver Georg Schwanhardt, is
recorded to have engraved glasses with
acid, one example attributed to him being
dated 1686. The technique can be used
either to cut through one layer of glass to
another, as in the glass illustrated, or to
provide a single-layered glass with a matt
finish. An acid-resist such as wax paraffin
covers the parts that are not to be affected,
the pattern having been cut through the
resist. The surface of the glass is then
treated in an acid bath (such as a mixture
of 100 parts of water, 10 of potassium
fluoride and t part hydrochloric acid).
Benjamin Richardson of the Richardson
firm of Stourbridge took out a patent to
etch glasses in 1857.
VASE WITH ACID-ETCHED DECORATION
J. & J. Northwood, England, r.1878.
Ht. 216 mm (85 in.)
It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries
that acid-etching became at all an accepted
mode of decoration. In England it is
known that the Dudley firm of Thomas
Hawkes used the technique in the 1830’s.
Besides flat glass objects, wine-glasses,
bottles and vases were being acid-etched
by the 1840’s. John Northwood and T.
Guest were involved in the Richardson
experiments with acid-etching, and in the
186o’s established themselves as individual
firms specialising in etching. They were
known as J. 8c J. Northwood, and Guest
Brothers respectively, and produced a
quantity of etched work in the later 1860’s
and 1870V The skill and delicacy of the
etching they achieved can be seen on the
vase illustrated, made at the J. 8c J.
Northwood works and shown at the Paris
Exhibition of 1878. Acid-etching was by
no means a technique confined to England,
however.
The Techniques of’Taking Away
As Maurice Marinoi of Trance grew to
understand the nature and working of
glass, he experimented with its ornamen-
tation. In 1922 he began using the
technique of acid-etching in a manner
distinctly his own. The process had been
used by French glass-makers since the
mid-19th century. F.mile Galle, comment-
ing on the technique, had said that it would
not do for delicate work, but ‘it cuts into
certain glasses in a manner of its own’. He
used it in his factory from 1890 onwards,
and the Daum factory had also used it to
some extent. Marinot took up acid-etching
because it suited his purpose better than
any other decorative technique. When he
employed acid-etching he used the massi v e
forms he had always favoured, in trans-
parent, occasionally tinted, glass. The
etched designs cut deeply into the surface,
giving an almost sculptural look to the
glass. The whole surface of the glass was
subjected to the treatment, with the most
varied results.
Acid-etching has been used to give a matt
surface to the colourless glass vase illus-
trated. This slender vase has a round foot,
w ith a long stem widening slightly towards
the bowl, which is of an exaggerated tulip
shape. It is just one example of the beaut]
of modern Swedish glass. Even such an
aesthetically difficult technique as etching
has been triumphantly used to give .1
beautiful all-over textural and eye-catch-
ing finish. It has been said that ‘Sweden’s
great contribution to modern design was
to transform Functionalism from an in-
tellectual theory into a practical instru-
ment for better living’ (Polak, 1962). This
was eminently shown in her glass-making;
but besides qualities like fitness for prac-
tical purpose, toughness in wear and
cheapness of production, the general aim
from the beginning was to create objects
of beauty. The Swedes succeeded in their
glassware perhaps more than in any other
branch of modern design.
ENGRAVED AND SAND-BLASTED VASE
Hy Sverre FtTterscn, Hadeland, Norway, 1038
Sand-blasling: In the process of sand-
blasting a stream of sand, crushed flint or
powdered iron is directed on to the surface
of the glass in a jet of air. The parts of the
glass to be left plain are covered with a
stencil plate of steel, or an elastic varnish
or rubber solution painted on to form a
protective shield. The type of finish is
varied by altering the size of the nozzle, or
the abrasive, or the air pressure. The
technique has been in use since 1870,
though it has rarely been applied to vessel
glass, except for lettering on mass-pro-
duced items, and is mainly used on glass
panels for decorative architectural use.
One of the more successful uses of sand-
blasting on vessel glass was by Sverre
Pettersen of Norway (1884-1959), who
was engaged as designer to Hadelands
Cilasswerk in 1928—at that time the only
factory for table glass and decorative glass
in Norway. During the ‘thirties he pro-
duced some very interesting pieces with
sand-blasted decoration.
PLATE WITH SAND-BLASTED ENGRAVING
By I adislav Oliva, Czechoslovakia, 1959
Diam. 362 mm (1425 in,)
Such are the difficulties attached to using
sand-blasting for anything but the heaviest
surface decoration that only very occasion-
ally are satisfying examples of the tech-
nique to be found. One of the exceptions is
this plate, designed and executed by
Ladislav Oliva (b. 1933) in Czechoslovakia.
The plate, in clear colourless lead crystal
glass, has a slightly raised rim, and the
grille-like decoration is in the form of cuts
about to mm (4/ioths in.) deep. Oliva
manages through this technique to give
the glass a new and exciting appearance.
His decorative themes always seem to
result from the natural lights of the heavy
glass mass. The matt finish that sand-
blasting imports to the glass can be very
pleasant to the touch, although sometimes
it can give a fairly rough effect.
The  century has been called the ‘golden
age of glass”, for it added many new tech-
niques to the glass-maker’s repertoire. This
sudden burst of activity can be put down to
many factors, including ‘the industrial revo-
lution, the relaxation of government controls
on the industry (specifically in England) and
a pride of craftsmanship born of freedom’
I Revi, i<)5g). Not since the Italian Renais-
sance had there been such an interest in new
glass-making ideas. In America the larger
firms hired scientists to discover new methods
of colouring glass, one of the best-known
being the Englishman Joseph I^ocke. In
Britain and on the Continent there was keen
rivalry in producing new types of art glass
for a highly competitive market. Demand
rem lied its zenith towards the end of the
I ii torian era. Since then, though new
techniques have still greatly interested glass-
makers, the art glass produced has reflected
the inherent qualities of the material, rather
than added decorative effects.
Pearl Satinglass, also known as Pearl Ware,
Mother-of-Pearl Satinglass and Verre de
Soie, can be found in a variety of patterns
and colours, but basically it shows the
technique of keeping a symmetrical or
controlled pattern of air traps within the
body of a vessel. The vase illustrated shows
a typical example in the so-called hobnail
pattern. Benjamin Richardson of England
filed the first patent for this technique in
1857. His method was quite simple. A
gather of glass was blown into a mould
which carried the pattern in projected
form. The piece, thus indented, was
covered by a further gather of glass, which
caused air traps to form over the pattern.
Another method current in England and
America in the late 19th century was to line
a heated mould with glass tubes, either
clear and colourless or coloured, and to
blow a bubble of glass into this mould.
BOWL OPAQUE IVORI
COLOURED GLASS CASED WITH A P.AIJi RUBY OUTER
LAYER
Stevens & Williams, England, about 1885
lit. 140 mm (55 in.)
The tubes would thus be caught up and
marvered into the body of the glass. By
twisting the paraison the worker produced
articles of glass with pearly swirled stripes
on the outer surface. This method was
probably used to produce the body of the
bowl illustrated, which has been further
worked to form a frilly rim, and has the
heavy applied decoration current around
1885, Patents to produce Pearl Satinglass
were filed by firms in New York in 1881
and France in 1885. The Mt. Washington
Glass Company of the U.S.A. filed patents
in 1886, which also suggested using heat-
sensitive metal to colour the glass, and
giving the article a lustreless finish by
using an acid bath, or by sand-blasting.
The Phoenix Glass Company of Pennsyl-
vania filed patents in 1886, 1887 and 1888;
the final patent described the use of two
moulds, one to pattern the inner wall of
the article, the other to be used after the
outer casing of glass had been applied.
FAIRY LAMP IN PEARL SATINGLASS, RAINBOW STRIPED
IN BLUE, ROSE, YELLOW AND APRICOT
About 1885. lit. 152 mm (6 in.)
The finished product made by the tech-
nique last described displayed a criss-
crossed network of pearly-indented lines
contained in the body of the article.
William Webb Boulton, who had the
Audnam Bank glass-house in England,
filed a patent for Pearl Satin Glass in 1885.
Other English glass-houses manufactured
this type of glass, notably Stevens &
Williams of Brierley Hill, who called it
‘Verre de Soie\ Much of the Pearl Satin-
glass produced in the late 19th century
came from Bohemian and French factories.
These cheaper wares, supplied by factories
at Steinschonau and Altrohlau, Bohemia,
effectively ruined the market for the finer
wares of England and America. Many
different means were used to colour Pearl
Satinglass. The rainbow striping suggested
in this fairy lamp was produced by laying
coloured rods of glass on the body of the
article before it was fully formed.
VASE IN PEARL SATINGLASS
Thomas Webb & Sons, England, probably early
iSoo’s. Hi. 260 mm (1025 in.)
The technical development of trapping air
in moulded recesses between an opaque-
glass body and a tinted layer was further
refined by Thomas Webb & Sons of
England. In the magnificent example
illustrated the vase has a diamond air-lock
pattern between opaque and translucent
layers of glass, but has been covered by an
outer layer etched away to form a floral
pattern in relief; the whole article has a
satin finish. In 1889 Thomas Webb
patented this process for manufacturing
cameo relief designs on articles of Pearl
Satin Ware. After the diamond air lock
pattern had been produced in the usual
way, an extra coating of opaque white or
coloured glass was applied. The design
was painted on to this coating with acid-
resisting inks; when the article was plunged
into an acid bath, the acid dissolved away
all glass not protected by the resist. The
glass-maker had to be extremely careful
not ti) leave the object in the acid too long,
lest the acid reached the air traps.
FOOTED VASE, WITH CORAIE1NE DECOR AI ION
Last quarter of iqih century. 111. 127 mm (j in.)
Corulene: ‘The vase illustrated displays a
type of decoration that became popular
from its introduction in the last quarter of
the 19th century and is known as
‘Coralcne’. A design was painted in enamel
on the surface of a glass. Tiny glass beads,
which could be clear, coloured or opales-
cent, were then applied and stuck to the
enamel paint of the design. The object was
next put into a muffle-kiln, where the
enamel and beads were fired firmly into
place. Decoration could be in the shape of
coral, but is also seen in fleur-de-lis,
herringbone, sheaf of wheat and many-
other patterns. This type of decoration is
found in all colours and on all types of
glassware. Coralenc was so named by the
Mt. Washington Glass Company in the
U.S.A., and by several Continental and
English glass manufacturers. Its use was
not restricted to any one factory.
Amberina is generally recognised as a
clear amber glass shading to red at the top.
The patent for it, dated July 24, 1883, was
granted to Joseph Locke of the Libbey
Glass Company. This remarkable man was
born in Worcester, Kngland, in 1846 and
worked first as a potter. Guest Brothers of
Stourbridge, etchers and decorators of
glass, engaged him, but later he was
persuaded to join the firm of Hodgetts,
Richardson & Company, where he pro-
duced his copy of the Portland vase. After
various employments, Locke finally went
to America in 1882, where he was signed
on by the New Kngland Glass Company
of Cambridge, Mass., later to become the
Libbey Glass Company of Toledo, Ohio.
‘Amberina’, ‘Pomona’, and ‘Agata’ glass
are only a few of his achievements while in
their employment. Amberina was the first
patented method for producing shaded
and parti-coloured glassware from a sen-
sitive homogeneous metal.
To produce Amberina a very small amount
of gold in solution was colloidally dis-
persed in a transparent amber glass metal.
When an object had been made from this
mix, it was allowed to cool below a glowing
red heat and then certain parts were re-
heated at the ‘glory hole’ (a small opening
in the furnace). This caused a red colour to
strike in the reheated portions—but over-
firing caused a fuchsia or purple shading.
Further patents were issued either to
Locke or to Kdward D. Libbey. An
interesting development was the produc-
tion of blanks composed of sensitive
Amberina glass which, after moulding,
were reheated to produce a deep ruby
colour on the outer surface only. A design
would be cut through to the undeveloped
amber colour below, giving a rich effect.
Amberina was made in Cambridge, Mass.,
between 1883 and 1888 by the New
Kngland Glass Company. A fine though
short-lived revival was made between 1917
and 1920, when the firm had moved to
Toledo, Ohio; one of its products is
shown above.
New England Glass Company, U.S.A., 1886
Ht. 178 mm (7 in.)
Almost every glass company in Europe and
America probably made Amberina at some
time during this period. A new technique
was patented for the New England Glass
Company in 1883 and was called ‘Plated
Amberina’; this was unique to that firm.
A piece of opal or opalescent glass plated
with a gold-ruby mixture was reheated at
the ‘glory hole’, so that it would develop
deeper and lighter shadings on its outer
surface. When Amberina metal was used,
the shading would of course be amber-to-
red. However, other colours could be
made: a sensitive cobalt and ruby glass
mixture would produce a plated ware
shading from blue to ruby. Canary, blue
and green colours were also mentioned in
the patent. Plated Amberina invariably has
moulded ribbed decoration, as in the
example shown, though this had no par-
ticular bearing on the specifications men-
tioned in the patent. It was manufactured
only from 1883 to 1886.
PARFA1T oi.ass in rose amber glass
Ml Washington Glass Company, U.S.A., 1886
Ht. 127 mm (5 in.)
The Mt. Washington Glass Company,
New Bedford, Mass., attempted more or
less successfully to produce its own
Amberina glass under the name ‘Rose
Amber’. This was in every way similar to
Locke’s Amberina. Needless to say, the
New England Glass Company had an
injunction granted in 1886 in their suit
against the Mt. Washington Glass Com-
pany for infringement of their patent.
The Circuit Court of the United States
forbade the New Bedford firm to produce
its Rose Amber wares. However, it did not
seem that this injunction had any effect.
The New Bedford Board of Trade Report
of 1889 describes the making of Amberina,
Rose Amber, by ‘two companies, of which
the Mt. Washington was one’, and de-
scribes how ‘it caught the popular fancy
and was all the rage for about two years’.
According to this report it was the success
of the Amberina glass that caused Mt.
Washington to go in for an opaque shaded
ware—Burmese glass.
AMBERINA GLASS
New England Glass Company, U.S.A., iS
iii. 121 mm (475 in.)
WINE-GLASS IN ALEXANDRITE GLASS
English, beginning of 2olh century
Ht. 114 mm (45 in.)
Quite a number of Amberina pieces were
pressed or press-moulded. This piece can
definitely be attributed to the New Eng-
land Glass Company, since it follows a
design sketch made by Joseph Locke in
1884 when he was head designer for the
Cambridge winks. I lobbs Brockunier &
Company of Wheeling, West Virginia,
were licensed to manufacture pressed
Amberina by the New England Glass
Company in 1886. Sowerby’s Ellison Glass
Works Ltd., Gateshead-on-Tyne, Eng-
land, were also licensed to produce pressed
Amberina in 1883. A transparent, homo-
geneous glass shading from pale amber to
a delicate rose tint was press-moulded by
the firm of CristalletICS de Baccarat of
France from 1916. Known as ‘Rose Teinte’,
or to collectors as ‘Baccarat’s Amberina’,
it was reintroduced in 1940 as a popular
item. Its delicate colours were a result of
using less gold salts in the glass, but its
similarity to the American Amberina and
Rose Amber is undisputed.
‘Alexandrite’ glass, a single-layer glass of
three blended colours, first appeared about
1900, and is reputed to have been made by
the two English firms of Thomas Webb &
Sons and Stevens & Williams. 11 started off
as an amber glass; a portion would be re-
heated to rose, and reheated again to blue
on the outer rim, producing an exception-
ally beautiful effect. It is found in plain as
well as patterned surfaces. Stevens &
Williams used a differing technique to
produce the same effect. They cased a body
glass of transparent amber with rose and
blue glass. The outer casings of blue and
rose were then cut away, to reveal the
yellow glass beneath. Kolo Moser, a glass
designer of Bohemia of the early 1900’s,
produced an amethyst transparent glass
which carries the mark ‘Alexandria, but
this one-colour ware should not be con-
fused with the work attributed earlier to
Webb and Stevens & Williams.
PITCHER IN RUBY GLASS WITH DEVELOPED
OPALESCENT DESIGN
I hi i ijih century. I It. 279 mm (11 in.)
Opalescent Glass: In the late 19th century
glasses with raised opalescent white de-
signs became very popular. A coloured
gather of glass was heavily coated with a
sensitive, clear colourless glass containing
bone ash and arsenic. This was blown into
a patterned mould to give it the raised
design. It was then cooled slightly and
reheated, the raised parts striking an
opalescent white, while the background
retained the original colour. Inexpensive
glassware in this technique was produced
by Hobbs Brockunier & Company of
Wheeling, West Virginia; Alexander J.
Beatty & Sons of Steubenville, Ohio;
Phillip Arbogast of Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania ; John Bryce & Company of Pitts-
burgh ; King & Company of Pittsburgh;
and Doyle & Company of Pittsburgh, and
others. Thomas Davidson of George
Davidson & Company Ltd. the Teams
Glass Works, Gateshead-on-Tyne, Eng-
land, patented in 1889 a process for making
a pressed, shaded version, in which the
opalescence was either white or of the
same shade as the body metal.
VASE IN BURMESE GLASS
Ml. Washington Glass Company, U.S.A., 1885
Ht. 305 mm (12 in.)
‘Burmese’ glass is a single-layered glass
shading from opaque greenish-yellow to
deep pink at the top. It was developed by
the Mt. Washington Glass Company,
New Bedford, Mass. Frederick S. Shirley
patented his formula for Burmese in 1885
for the firm. He produced the glass by
adding small amounts of fluorspar, feldspar
and oxide of uranium to essentially the
same ingredients as used by Joseph Locke
to make his Amberina glass. The fluorspar
and feldspar gave the glass its translucency,
and the uranium oxide made the ordin-
arily translucent white glass melt a pale-
yellow in colour; the gold made the glass
sensitive to thermal changes so that when
reheated at the ‘glory hole’ it struck a
salmon pink colour, which shaded down
to the original yellow. A second reheating
caused the pink glass to revert back to its
yellow colour, a feature quite often seen
on the rim of a piece of Burmese glass.
Frederick Shirley’s formula for Burmese-
glass was patented in England in 1886.
Thomas Webb 8i Sons of Stourbridge,
England, purchased a licence to copy-
Burmese products as well as to produce
their own shapes and designs. Most ol t he-
English Burmese ware is acid-finished,
though Mt. Washington produced both
glossy and acid-finished Burmese ware.
Thomas Webb & Sons called their glass
‘Queen’s Burmese Ware’. The glass was
much used for the patent ‘fairy lights’ or
small individual candle shades so popular
in England and America in the late
‘eighties. Queen Victoria ordered a tea-set
in Burmese glass from the Mt. Washington
Glass Company, enamelled with what was
to become known as the ‘Queen’s’ design.
The ornamentation of Burmese ware was
often of a highly decorative order. Verses
by well-known poets, Egyptian scenes, and
bird and animal portrayals were included
in enamelled motifs. Occasionally, finely
wrought applied decoration w ould be used.
Peach Blow: When a ‘Peach Bloom’
coloured Chinese porcelain vase was sold
for $18,000 in 1886, this caused such a
sensation that products labelled ‘Peach
Bloom’ or —slightly changed ‘Peach
Blow’ attracted many sales. ‘The glaze on
the vase was described as being the colour
of ‘crushed strawberries’. The magic of
the name attracted the attention of manu-
facturers of coloured art glasses, who tried
to devise new types suitable for this name.
Hobbs Brockunicr & Company of Wheel-
ing, West Virginia, produced such a glass
and called it ‘Wheeling Peach Blow’.
Replicas of the ‘Morgan’ vase were made,
like the example illustrated, in both glossy
and acid finishes. The moulded Stand with
its five-headed griffin is in an unimportant-
quality amber glass, hut the vase itself is
made of white opal glass plated with 1
transparent amber glass, made heat-sensi-
tive with gold salts. Reheating caused the
glass to strike a ruby colour, shading to
yellow or amber.
The Mt. Washington Glass Company
filed trade-name papers on the terms
‘Peach Blow’ and ‘Peach Skin’ through
Frederick S. Shirley in 1886. As a
colourant for their new products Shirley
substituted a small amount of cobalt or
copper oxide, instead of oxide of uranium
as in making Burmese. This produced a
homogeneous glass shaded pale grey-blue
to a delicate rose tint in the reheated
portions. When plunged in acid the surface
acquired an all-over slightly grey cast. As
it is a single-layered glass, the shading is
the same on the inside as on the exterior.
The Mt. Washington Peach Blow wares
were manufactured in similar shapes to
their Burmese ware. Moulded and applied
decoration were used, as well as gilding
and enamelling. The example illustrated
shows the ‘Queen’s’ design, as ordered by
Queen Victoria from the firm. The pattern
is of conventionalised flowers in raised
enamel, much of the decoration done in
pure gold reduced with acids.
The success of its Amberina glasses caused
the New England Glass Company to
experiment further with heat-sensitive
glasses. One of the resulting products was
patented by Edward D. Libbey in 1886
and called at first ‘Wild Rose’, later ‘Peach
Blow’. It is a single-layered glass shading
down from red to white in the lower part
of the piece. To produce it, an opal glass
was combined with a gold-ruby glass in
one pot. When a vessel had been formed,
reheating produced the rose colouring in
the required parts. Glasses made from this
metal were moulded, decorated with gild-
ing and enamelling and also acidized to a
satin finish. Occasionally, they would be
left in the original glossy state. The vase
illustrated was decorated by Joseph Locke
for his daughter Nora. The etched reliel
designs covering the surface of the glass
have been outlined and highlighted with
gold traceries and a dark brown mineral
stain.
At about the same time that the U.S.A.
glass-making firms were experimenting
with heat-sensitive glasses, both Thomas
Webb & Sons and Stevens & Williams of
England manufactured shaded wares
which they termed ‘Peach Glass’ or ‘Peach
Bloom’. Webb’s Peach Glass was cased,
the inner layer being creamy coloured with
a slight ly greenish cast in the upper portion.
It is similar in appearance to Hobbs
Brockunier & Company’s ‘Wheeling Peach
Blow’. Stevens & Williams of Stourbridge
produced a glass called ‘Peach Bloom’
which was also very much the same in
appearance. The English Peach glasses
were produced in both glossy and acid
finishes, and arc frequently found with
elaborate gold decoration on both finishes.
Occasionally, Webb’s Peach Glass will
have the Webb incised mark on the base;
Stevens & Williams ware also sometimes
bears a mark under the foot.
The Boston & Sandwich Glass Company,
Sandwich, Mass., manufactured a glass
known as ‘Sandwich Peach Blow’. This
was a single-layered glass, strawberry ice
cream pink in shading, often found in
moulded and twisted swirl decoration; see
the example above, which also has the
characteristic thorn handle of the period.
Overlay decorations in a camphor or
greyish colour are quite usual, the com-
plete piece having an acid finish. Many-
other types of glass are loosely termed
‘Peach Blow’, but basically, apart from a
slight variation in colour shading, the
products can be summarised as follows:
Webb and Wheeling Peach Blow are
always lined, but Mt. Washington, New-
England and Sandwich Peach Blow are
never lined. The Bohemian manufacturers
soon cashed in on the vogue of Peach Blow
wares, producing far cheaper glasses,
which forced the better products off the
markets, though their wares in no way-
resembled those made in America and in
England.

covered goblet with engraved portrait ok carl
Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, by Franz Gondelaeh,
Germany, c. 1700.
Spillcr’s contemporary and pupil was
Jager, an outstanding glass-
engraver. He was born at Reichenberg in
Bohemia, appeared in Berlin in 1606 and
was made a member of the Berlin glass-
cutters’ guild in 1606. Both Spiller’s and
Jager’s glasses often show crisselling (a
network of tiny cracks in the glass), a
defect found in the Potsdam glass used at
the Berlin workshop. The third engraving
workshop to be set up for a German court
was that of Franz Gondelaeh (or Gunde-
lach) for the Court of the Landgrave Carl
of Hesse Cassel. Gondelaeh, sometimes
called the greatest German master of the
art, was born at Gross-Almerode in Hesse
in 1663 and becameJiirstlicheGIasschneider
to Carl in 1695. It is not known when he
died, but he was still described as Hof-
glasschneider at Cassel in 1716. He some-
times used Potsdam glass for his work,
occasionally marking his pieces with an
eight-rayed star.
It is only towards the end of the 17th
century that a genuine distinction between
glass-cutting and glass-engraving can be
made. For the first time it is obvious that
different types of equipment were being
developed for cutting and for engraving.
The glass-engraver’s equipment was light
enough at this period to be carried, where-
as the glass-cutter’s equipment, used for
facetting, intaglio (deep cutting) or rough-
ing out for finer engraving, was hardly
portable. The large interchangeable
wheels for cutting were rotated on a heavy
hand-turned cutting machine, a form of
equipment which survived until the
modern period. By the end of the 17th
century, water power was in use for turn-
ing the wheels, and was probably used to
do the all-over facetting as an obligatory
prelude to the engraving on glasses of
Bohemia and Silesia in the 18th century.
Intaglio or Hochschnitt cutting would not
have been possible without this extra
power.
The Bohcmian-Silcsiart glass-engraving
industry produced glasses that were event-
ually exported as far as Persia and the East,
as well as all over Europe. The Bohemian
workshops were predominant in the late
17th and early 18th centuries, but after
1725 Silesia overtook them in importance.
There were workshops in Schreiberhau,
Hermsdorf, Kynast, Warmbrunn, Peters-
dorf and Breslau, as well as other places in
the Hirschberger Tal. The finest Silesian
work occurs partly in the Rococo period,
when characteristic forms appear, such as
shell-shaped, lobed and scrolled cups,
which were frequently gilded as well. Most
of the work remains anonymous, but some
of the finest work is known to have been
done by an artist of Warmbrunn, Christian
Gottfried Schneider (1710-73). All other
German centres remained subordinate to
the Bohemian-Silesian workshops, but the
name of Anton Wilhelm Mauerl (1672-
¦737) of Nuremberg should be mentioned
for his work with its accent on Chinoiserie.
By the beginning of the 18th centur;
wheel-engraving as a decoration on glass
(often of English manufacture) was be-
coming established in popularity in Hol-
land. The chief exponent of the art there
was Jacob Sang, a Saxon who worked in
Amsterdam. Dutch wheel-engraving was
very German in style, and certainly at first
was the work of German craftsmen resi-
dent in Holland. Jacob Sang engraved and
signed a number of glasses with dates
between 1752 and 1769 during his stay at
Amsterdam. He was probably related to
Andreas Friedrich Sang, the Thuringian
glass-engraver. In 1738 A. F. Sang was
recorded at Weimar, as Hoch/iirstlich
sdchsiscke Glasschneider. His son was the
Brunswick Court glass-engraver, Johann
Heinrich Balthasar Sang. Wheel-engrav-
ing had already been practised in Holland
in the first half of the 18th century,
possibly by another member of the Sang
family.
WINE-GLASS ENGRAVED 165 mm (6-5 in.)
DRINKING GLASS IN COLOURLESS GlASS WITH
ENGRAVED DECORATION
John Frederick AmelungGlassworks, L.S.A. 1703
III. 220 mm (805 in)
A group of engraved glasses thai enjoys
great popularity with collectors comprises
the so-called Jacobite glasses, all engraved
with symbols of the Jacobite cause in
England. The various emblems include the
star, oak-leaf, butterfly, caterpillar, grub,
carnation, forget-me-not, lily-ot-the-val-
ley, daffodil, honeysuckle and sunflower.
The most important symbol, however, is
undoubtedly the Jacobite Heraldic Rose,
which may have six, seven or eight petals,
representing, it is thought, the Crown of
England. Other glasses have actual por-
traits of Prince Charles Edward, the Young
Pretender, engraved (not very skilfully) on
their bowls. The words FIAT, AUDEN-
TIOR UK) and REDEAT are often found
on these glasses. The exact significance of
each symbol, including buds in relation to
the roses, is the subject of much discussion,
bin no one yet knows all the answers. The
majority of the glasses have air-twist
stems, but baluster stems and opaque
twists are also lound.
Some of the most noteworthy engraved
glass of North America was produced at
John Frederick Amelung’s glass-works
which was established at New Bremen
near Frederick, Maryland, in 1784. Efforts
to establish a glass industry had been made
during the 17th century, notably at James-
town in Virginia, where the first attempt
was made around 1608. However, the first
successes in the business were scored
mainly by Germans and Englishmen in the
18th century, when several important
glass manufactories were started, the
Amelung glass-house being the most
successful. It operated for only one decade,
but its clear glass decanters, glasses and
goblets set a high standard. The glass
illustrated is European in style, showing a
sturdy form and restrained engraving,
with foliage and a finely drawn inscription
‘George Trisler’ and the date 170.!, en-
closed in the foliage. The shallow wheel-
engraving found on these glasses often
features commemorative inscriptions and
dales
The period of prosperity after the Napo-
leonic wars known in Germany as the
Biedermeierzeil brought about the revival
of the art of glass-engraving, particularly
in Bohemia. Massive feet and bold poly-
gonal facetting are characteristic of these
heavy engraved pieces. The commoner
examples arc somewhat clumsily engraved,
but the finer pieces are equal to anything
from the previous periods. Glass-engravers
tended to work independently and to move
about; thus Dominik Bimann (1800-57)
worked at Prague, but went to Franzens-
bad during the season, and August Bohm
(1812-90) visited England and America.
Romantic landscapes and hunting scenes
showing faithful perspective were popular.
The Pelikan family of Meistersdorf near
Kamnitz and the Simms of Jablonec were
also notable engravers in this style.
Engraving through a silver stained surface
to clear colourless glass was popular, as in
the goblet illustrated, which has engraved
panels flashed with clear yellow glass.
It is worth while taking a close look at 19th
century English wheel-engraving, since so
much of it is still to be seen. As Hugh
Wakefield points out, the early years of the
century could truthfully be called the
heyday of cut glass, and engraving was
only used where cutting could not reason-
ably be used on a glass vessel. Simple
wheel-engraved motifs appeared often
enough on wine-glasses, and larger vessels
might have lettering in the form of mottoes
and inscriptions. Floral and other plant
motifs were used effectively as in the loving
cup illustrated. On the other hand, repre-
sentatives of figures were unusual, and
appeared only on the more special pieces.
Difficult subject matters were avoided, and
it could be said that engraving in the early
years of the 19th century was considered
suitable only for commemorative pieces
and for the bowls of wine-glasses, where
cutting could not be used.
Kngraved by a member of the Wood family of
Brettell I ..me, Kngland, 1840-50
Hi. 209 mm (117; in.)
JUG WITH  DECORATION
Shown ai the 1851 exhibition by J. Ci. Green,
Kngland. Ht. 337 mm (13*25 in.)
In the early 1840’s surface stains were
being used in the Stourbridge area on
glassware, broad flute cutting being added.
The stain was normally ruby-red, derived
from copper rather than the yellowish-
brown given by silver. The bottle illus-
trated is ruby-red stained and was en-
graved by a member of the Wood family of
Brcttell Lane, near Stourbridge. The
bottle forms part of the movement in the
1830*1 and 1840’s, when the scope of
engraved work seems to have widened in
England. The Wood family had an im-
portant engraving shop in Stourbridge
around the 1840’s, and Thomas Wood was
established enough to produce an inde-
pendent display for the 1851 exhibition.
\i the firm of Thomas I lawkes in Dudley,
near Stourbridge, William Herbert and
the rest of his family were becoming noted
during the 1830’s for the engravings they
produced for the firm. It was soon to
become apparent that wheel-engraving
was a technique well suited to Victorian
taste.
Shapes popular for wheel-engraving in
Victorian times included globular decan-
ters and water carafes. These forms were
developed in the early years of Victoria’s
reign, and proved so suitable to the
technique of wheel-engraving that they
probably helped to popularise it. The
hemispherical champagne glass introduced
about this time could only be whccl-
engraved and not deep-cut. At the 1851
Exhibition the most significant engraved
glass was that exhibited by the London
dealers, particularly by the firm of J. G.
Green. Their ‘Neptune’ jug, a large Greek
oinochoe shape elaborately engraved, was
much illustrated at the time and is
illustrated here. The oinochoe shape be-
came very popular in the later part of tlu-
cent ury, but the most usual shapes for
engraving for the late 1850’s, 1860’s and
1870’s were footed ovoid shapes used lor
decanters, claret jugs and vases. These
were blown thinly, and offered a large ana
By Frederick E. Kny, Thomas Webb & Sons,
England, probably later 1870’s
Ht. 308 mm (12-13 in.)
The decanter illustrated was engraved by
the Bohemian Frederick E. Kny, one of
the most distinguished engravers in Eng-
land in the 1860’s, who remained prom-
inent for the rest of the century. He had a
separate workshop on the premises of
Thomas Webb & Sons at Stourbridge.
He, like other artists, favoured the well-
known three-lipped decanter shape for
engraving. This shape, as seen in the
illustration, with its high shoulder and
spherical stopper, often with a tiny ball
finial, was a result of the current admira-
tion for Greek pottery forms. It looked
best when blown thin, and called for the
lighter work of wheel-engraving for decor-
ation. The shape came into its fullest
popularity in the early 1870’s, appearing
in the Stevens & Williams pattern books in
January, 1871, and in the Thomas Webb
and Richardson firms at roughly the same
time. By the last decade of the century it
was one of the best-known international
shapes.
The Techniques of Taking Away
JIG WITH ENGRAVED FERN PATTERN
John Eord, Scotland, about the i88o’s
Hi. 247 mm (075 in.)
Another shape that was most popular for
wheel-engraving in England in the 1860’s
was the tankard-shaped water jug, with
straight, slightly tapering sides. This style
of jug was used for fine engraving until
near the end of the 19th century, but since
then the shape has become too common-
place for such elaborate treatment. Motifs
for engraving in the 1860’s were Renais-
sance arabesques and Greek-inspired de-
signs, while in the later 1860’s and 1870’s
naturalistic designs of flowers, birds and
hunting scenes became more common.
The fern patterns on the jug illustrated
originated with the Scottish firm of John
Ford of the Holyrood glass-works. To-
wards the end of the 1850’s an emigrant
Bohemian, J. H. B. Millar, set up a work-
shop for engraving glass in Edinburgh,
closely connected with the firm of John
Ford. He introduced the fern patterns at
the London exhibition of 1862 and they
remained very popular for a long period.
VASE WITH ‘ROCK CRYSTAL.’ ENGRAVING
by Frederick K. Kny, Thomas Webb & Sons,
Kngland, abou” 1880. Hi. 235 mm (0/25 in.)
WINE-GLASS WITH INTAGLIO FLORAL ENGRAVING
Slcvcns & Williams, Kngland, about 1000
Hi. 159 mm (625 in.)
A new style of decoration appeared in
England towards the beginning of the
1880’s, which was called ‘rock crystal’
engraving. What differentiated the new
technique from normal wheel-engraving
was that all parts of the work were
polished, instead of the engraving being
kept unpolished to contrast with the
surrounding surface. This uniformly
bright appearance led to a new approach
in the design of the engraving. Instead of
the engraving being a pattern on the glass,
it took over the whole surface of the vessel
and became deeper cut, and more in the
character of carving. The effect was an
even more sumptuous method of decorat-
ing English lead glass, in line with the
international trend for brilliant cut glass,
and it was also in keeping with the
simultaneous development of carved cam-
eo glass. The workshops of F. E. Kny
(see illustration) and of William Fritsche,
which were attached to Thomas Webb &
Sons, produced ‘rock crystal’ glass
throughout the 1880’s and 1890’s.
‘Rock crystal’ glass was produced in
France in this period, and possibly Thomas
Webb’s work was inspired by the work of
the French glass-makers. Stevens & Wil-
liams at Brierley Hill near Stourbridge
also produced ‘rock crystal’. In the early
1880’s there was a phase when ‘rock
crystal’ pieces were made to imitate
Chinese jades. The final fling for Victorian
engraving came with Stevens & Williams
intaglio work of the 1890’s, as in the wine-
glass illustrated. Intaglio is deep engraving
carried out on wheels that would normally
be used for cutting, a technique some-
where between cutting and engraving. The
names of John Northwood and Joshua
Hodgetts are particularly associated with
the development of this method. The
technique was worked out at the beginning
of the 1890’s, and was an established part
of the Stevens & Williams output by the
later 1890’s. It was also being used by
American firms, such as T. G. Hawkes of
Corning, New York.
Intaglio work was produced notably by the
firm of L. C. Tiffany at the factory at
Corona, Long Island, in the U.S.A.
towards the end of the ioth century and
the beginning of the present century.
Their ‘intaglio’ glass differed from English
intaglio, since besides referring to the
cutting and engraving of glass, the term
also referred to the practice of applying
contrasting coloured glass in the engraved
parts and re-cutting so that engraved work
appears on decorative inlays. The flower
and leaves on the vase illustrated have been
treated in this manner, being in contrast-
ing colours to the base glass. Glass that
had been cut or engraved either in intaglio
or in cameo relief by the Tiffany factory
was always referred to as ‘Carved’ in their
brochures and catalogues. The glass fac-
tory also produced simpler relief-cut
objects without colour contrasts and used
coppcr-wheel-cngraving on many of their
vases, bowls, lampshades and tablewares.
The finest achievement of Wilhelm v. Eiff
(1890-1943) was his work in high relief
(Hochschnitt) on glass. He raised it from a
miniature art, giving the technique the
dignity of sculpture. Von Eiff was the son
of a craftsman at the Goppingen branch
of the Wiirttembergische Metallwaren-
fabrik, and at a very early age mastered the
techniques of engraving both metal and
glass. He worked for a time in Lalique’s
jeweller’s studio, and also with the famous
glass-engraver Charles Michel in Paris. In
1913 he paid a short visit to the Art School
in Stuttgart, and in 1921 he worked for a
while with the glass designer Stephan
Rath. In 1922 he was appointed professor
in cutting and engraving on glass and
precious stones at the school in Stuttgart.
He had a great influence on his pupils, who
now can be found from Scotland to Japan,
doing work in many different ways, from
each other’s products as well as from v.
‘GIRLS PLAYING BALI-’
engraving by Edward Hald, Orrefors, Sweden, 1019
BOWL IN PALE BILE GLASS ENGRAVED WITH ANGEL
AND DANCING MAIDENS
By Simon Gale, Orrefors, Sweden. 1927
Hi. 160 mm (63 in.)
Of great importance to the history of art
glass were the appointments in 1916 and
1917 respectively of Simon Gate and
Edward Hald as designers to the glass-
works at Orrefors. Edward Hald (b. 1883)
was a painter who had studied with
Matisse in Paris, and had already designed
pottery for the factory at Rorstrand.
Orrefors, founded in 1898, is situated in
Smaland, the main glass-producing dis-
trict in Sweden. Here, Hald had to learn
the very basics of glass-making from K nut
Bergqvist, master glass-blower at the
factory from 1914. It was the engraved
glass produced at Orrefors which won the
factory its first international fame. There
was already an engravers’ shop at Orre-
fors, with Gustaf Abels at its head, before
Gate and Hald were appointed. As soon
as they settled in, they began to experi-
ment with this technique. Hald preferred
a more delicate approach to engraving
than Gate’s style, producing exquisite
objects like the vessel illustrated, directly
inspired by the art of Matisse.
Simon Gate (1883-1945) the first glass-
designer employed by the Orrefors glass-
works, was the son of a prosperous farmer
and trained as an artist in the grand
classical manner at the Academy in Stock-
holm. Like his contemporary Hald, he had
to learn glass-making from the beginning
when he joined Orrefors, and he concen-
trated first on the art of engraving. The
style of the early engraved work of the
Orrefors glass-works reflects the taste for
luxury products in prosperous post-war
Stockholm —an elegant nec—classicism.
Within this tradition both Gate and Hald
developed their own styles. Gate’s work is
noted for the heaviness and large dimen-
sions of the vessels, decorated in deep
carving with figure subjects from the
Bible, classical mythology and like sources.
It is claimed of Orrefors that no other
glass-works has had such an international
influence over glass-production. For the
first three decades of this century the
attention of the glass-works was directed
to the art of engraving glass.
Jarosla Horejc (b. 1886) is a glass designer
of Hungarian origin. One of Drahoftov-
sky’s pupils, he produced for the Paris
Exhibition in 1925 four vases with en-
graved decoration, one illustrated here,
decorated in magnificent classical style
with figures cut in very high relief
(Hochschnitt). The well-known Viennese
glass firm, J. & L, I.obmeyr was estab-
lished in 1823; since that date three
generations of Lobmcyrs had worked as
dealers in and refiners of glass in Vienna.
In 1918 Stephen Rath, a nephew of
Ludwig Lobmcyr, established a branch
cil the firm called ‘J. & L. Lobmeyrs Neffc
Stephan Rath’ in the North Bohemian
town of Steinschonau (or Kamcnicky
Seno). Here glass was made to Rath’s
specifications and decorated to the design
of artists by the finest engravers of the
district. Horejc’s work is a direct result of
this; in 1962 he was still continuing his
classical tradition of engraving with richly
varied figure subjects from the Lobmeyr
Studio.
John 1 lutton was born in New Zealand in
1906. He is probably best known for his
work in England, at Guildford, and for the
engraved panels he produced for Coventry
Cathedral. The freencss of his style of
engraving owes much to his equipment, a
movable wheel driven through a sheathed
flexible shaft by an electric motor. Water
is fed to the wheel by a wet piece of cloth
held in a bracket attached to the hand grip.
Instead of applying the glass to a stationary
wheel in the conventional manner of
engraving, Hutton is able to move his
wheel at will over the whole surface of the
glass. The result is a fine, shallow, light
engraving with rather a rough finish.
Hutton has translated some of the Coven-
try figures on to large vessels produced by
Whitefriars, one of which is illustrated.
His art is forceful and dramatic, and
reveals a new facet to the technique of
engraving glass.
Steuben Glass Works, U.S.A., 1045-50
Hi. 1525 mm (6 in.)
Frederick Carder (1863-1963) of the
Steuben Glass Works at Corning, New
York, developed the ancient cire perdue
(lost wax) process for the production of
Diatreta. In this process a wax model of
the object was made from a gelatin mould
taken from a plaster of Paris replica of the
object. The wax model was covered with a
ceramic mould. After a drying period of
twenty-four hours the mould was placed
over boiling water which melted the wax,
leaving the moulded impression in reverse
of the original model. Cold glass in the
form of rods or lumps was placed in the
mould, which was then fired in a kiln until
the glass had run into every part of the
mould. The mould and glass were next
slowly annealed, and finally the mould was
broken away, leaving a glass casting of the
original model. The Diatretum pieces
made between 1945 and 1959 show how
Carder had perfected this method of
glass-casting.
ENGRAVED BY Ј. JANE WEBSTER
England, 1963
One of the more successful modern free-
lance wheel-engravers of Britain is Jane
Webster, a former student of Stourbridge
College and Royal College, where she
gained the Princess of Wales scholarship.
Her chief concern, as it also is with her
contemporaries Laurence Whistler and
David Peace, is the satisfactory relation-
ship between the design on one side of the
glass and the part that shows through from
the other. Her husband, Cyril P. Aron,
designed her copper wheel-engraving
lathe. She specialises in commemorative
presentation pieces such as the one pre-
sented to Princess Anne on the occasion of
her visit to Pilkington Brothers’ St. Asaph
factory in Wales in 1972. She has also
engraved a set of twelve windows in a
synagogue at Stanmore, and an overdoor
panel for the Edinburgh Weavers’ show-
room in London. The chalice and paten
illustrated were commissioned by the
architect, Harry M. Fairhurst to be pre-
sented by the academic staff for the chapel
of the St. Anselm University Hall of
Residence at Manchester.

The blank was then subjected to an acid
bath, to give the surface a matt finish.
Knamels were applied somewhat thinly,
except in areas that were to have a raised
design, and these were fired on. The most
popular colours were whiles, tans and soft
pastel shades, though occasionally brighter
colours were employed. The usual floral,
figural, animal, bird and fish motifs of the
Mt. Washington Glass Company were
used on this ware. Ornate handles, finials
and prunts were also to be found. The
initials ‘C apd ‘M’ one upon the other,
with a five-pointed crown above, was the
trademark, though occasionally the crown
was omitted. Thomas Webb & Sons of
Kngland produced a similar ware some
time between 1880 00, as illustrated
above. The New Bedford works may have
produced the so-called ‘Shiny Crown
Milano’, a glossy white opal glass, usually
with gold-coloured floral decoration. It is
found with a red laurel wreath fired to the
bottom of the glass.
In 1870 I lenry Cielhing Richardson of the
firm of Hodgetts, Richardson & Son of
Stourbridge, Kngland, patented a method
for ‘Improvements In Producing Orna-
ments, Designs, And Inscriptions On Or
In Glass’. A wide open-mouthed vessel in
clear glass was made, and when it had
cooled, had a design enamelled on its
inside. The thin-walled vessel was then
heated to a low redness while a second
smaller bubble of opal or other coloured
glass was lowered into it. This was blown
until it attached itself to the inside of the
vessel, thus covering and imprisoning the
enamelled design between the two layers.
The designs were painted so that when the
paraison expanded they did not distort too
much. The same effect could be made by
painting a design in coloured enamels on
an opal or coloured glass and then
immersing this in clear colourless glass to
lock the design in. Once the design was
imprisoned, the glass could be shaped into
the article wanted.
mary gregory vase in green glass with girl and
butter ely net enamelled in white
Atlributcd to Boston & Sandwich Glass Company,
U.S.A., iqth century
So-called ‘Mary Gregory’ glass is a trans-
parent coloured glassware with white or
coloured enamel designs painted and fired
on to the surface. It was a cheap imitation
of English cameo glass, but with a certain
merit of its own. Such wares were made
more prolifically on the Continent than in
America. However, much of the ware has
been erroneously attributed to one of the
older American glass factories in Sand-
wich, Mass., the Boston & Sandwich Glass
Company. The firm is known primarily
for its pressed wares of the early 1830’s,
but later it produced some decorated
glasses, possibly including enamelled glass
of this type. A Mary Gregory is supposed
to have been employed in the decorating
department of the Cape Cod works, which
is the reason for the name given to the
glass. Some genuine Boston & Sandwich
pieces depict young children engaged in
butterfly-collecting, the detail, including
the childrens’ facial features, being beauti-
fully finished.
vase with enamelled decoration
Signed Moser, Bohemia, early 20th century
Ht. 26c mm
Bohemian sources continued to search for
a cheaper method of producing work with
the same surface decorative effect as
English cameo work. They usually
achieved this in Mary Gregory style, with
simulated cameo decoration in extremely
fine white enamel work on overlay vases.
Their work was good, but unfortunately it
depressed the fine English cameo market,
since the genuine cameo work was expen-
sive to produce. In a different category of
enamelling technique comes the work of
Kolo Moser, a Bohemian designer as well
as decorator of glass in the early tooo’s,
who was counted as one of the finer
European glassmen of this period. His
pieces can be recognised by their very fine
enamelling, as in the vase illustrated.
Moser’s work included the introduction to
the market of an amethyst dichroic trans-
parent glass called ‘Alexandria (not to be
confused with the three-coloured ware of
Thomas Webb and Stevens & Williams of
England, which went under the name of
‘Alexandrite’).
VASE WITH ENAMELLED DECORATION
by Maurice Marinoi, France, c. 1920.
Hi. 343 mm (13 50 in.)
Maurice Marinot (born 1882), the most
decisive personality in the history of art
glass between the wars, began as a painter.
Between 1905 and 1914 he was exhibiting
regularly, already showing a tendency for
clear and orderly composition and an
imaginative use of colour. He was intro-
duced to glass-making in 1911, when he
visited the glass factory of Viard near
Troyes, and started to direct the produc-
tion of glass, which he himself decorated
with enamels. His glasses became col-
lectors’ items almost immediately, espec-
ially after his exhibition at the Salon des
link-pendants in 1912. Simple in shape,
they were decorated with the heads and
figures of women. As he began to under-
stand better the technique of enamelling,
his colours became even richer and the
texture finer. The pieces he made after the
First World War showed extraordinary
freedom and refinement, and the colours
had great subtlety, though his pre-war
pieces had a youthful zest which was all
their own.
SPOUTED WINE-GLASS IN CLEAR COLOURLESS GLASS, WITH
GILDING AND PAINTING
Hall-in-ihe-Tyrol, 1536. Ht. 335 mm (1315 in.)
Cold Painted Glass: Unfired colours, such
as lacquer, varnish and oil pigments, have
all been used to decorate glass, but they
easily rub off, and must therefore be con-
sidered a poorer form of coloured decora-
tion than fired enamels. Examples of
Roman glass with unfired paintings have
been found. It is also known that at about
the middle of the 16th century, after
enamelling had gone out of fashion, a form
of decoration in unfired oil colours was in
favour in Italy. Elaborate pictorial sub-
jects were used, often based on Raphael’s
work, with elaborate gilt scroll-work, but
the decoration was naturally very liable to
damage. Unfired lacquer painting and
gilding was used as decoration at the Hall-
in-the-Tyrol glass-house, which flourished
in the third quarter of the 16th century.
The spouted ewer illustrated is typical of
this work. In England, cheaper glass
products of the 19th century, such as
rolling pins and sugar basins, bore unfired
painted decoration.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
Lustre-painted Glass: An old technique
which was neither cold painting nor
enamelling, but did involve the firing-on
of a film of pigment to the glass, was known
as lustre painting. Depending on the
firing, the film became more or less
lustrous, and was almost imperceptible to
the touch. Exactly how it was done has
never been discovered, but there is reason
to connect the technique with that of
lustre-painting on tin-glazed pottery which
was practised first in Mesopotamia in the
9th century A.D. The method depended
on the reduction of metallic compounds
such as silver, copper or gold to the
metallic state by means of the carbon in
smoke. Generally speaking, the lustre
produced was reddish-brown in colour.
The technique was first practised in
Egypt, in either the late Byzantine or early
Islamic period, and was probably known
to Syrian glass-makers. In more modern
times platinum and bismuth have been
used as metallic compounds to produce
lusires on glassware (see Iridescent Glass).
Gold Decoration: Gold Sandwich Glass:
Apart from gold included in mosaic glass,
some of the earliest examples of gold
decoration are the gold sandwich glasses
found at Canosa in Apulia, Italy, dating to
the 3rd century B.C. (see Techniques
Before Blowing). After blowing was in-
vented in the 1st century B.C. the tech-
nique of sandwiching gold foil between
two glass layers was not abandoned, but
reached its most prolific period in approx-
imately the 4th century A.D. The majority
of these gilded glasses of the 3rd and 4th
centuries A.D. were found in the cata-
combs around Rome, embedded in the
plaster of the loculi, probably put there by
the relatives of the dead. These early
Christian fondi <f oro, as they are some-
times called, arc in fact the bases of
shallow bowls or dishes. The gold leaf
which was put inside the base ring of the
glass was engraved and sometimes, as in
the above example, had additional painted
decoration. This was covered with a
further protective layer of glass, which
was fused or cemented’to the base of the
bowl.
fragment of a bowi. in gold sandwich glass
depicting christ
lialy, 4ih century A.D. Diam. 90 mm (3′55 >n-)
The glass was broken away to the edge of
the gold decoration, so that a medallion-
like effect was achieved. Sometimes the
outer layer was coloured, but usually both
layers of glass were colourless. The sub-
jects depicted were taken from Jewish and
Christian symbolism and Biblical history,
but pagan motifs also appeared, such as
scenes from games and Classical myth-
ology, and dedications can be found to
circus heroes as well as to saints. The ware
was almost certainly manufactured at a
workshop in or near Rome. The name of a
4th-century A.D. bishop, Damasus, ap-
pears on several fragments, which helps
to date them, and since no more burials
took place in the catacombs after about
410 A.D., this could be assumed to be
their latest date. The workmanship on the
gold sandwich glasses is not usually of high
artistic merit. A disadvantage of the
technique was that air bubbles might get
between the two layers of glass and
disfigure the design.
tumbler in ‘/.mschengoldglas technique
Bohemia, about 1730. Ht. 89 mm (35 in.)
(See also colour photographs /(j and 14)
The gold sandwich technique is believed
to have been used in Rhenish glass
factories in Roman times. Fragments with
painted decoration have been found in
Cologne, in a style not seen on the glasses
from Rome. A series of Byzantine tiles
dating from somewhere between the 6th
and the 12th centuries A.D. differs in
being made up of fused gold glass covered
with a film of colourless glass. The method
was revived in the 18th century in Ger-
many, the products being called Zwischen-
goldgldser. Gold leaf was applied and
engraved on the outside of a tumbler,
which had previously been ground down
for about three-quarters of its height, a
projecting shoulder being left at the top.
A polygonal bottomless glass was then put
over the gold decoration, fitting neatly to
the shoulder. This outer glass projected a
little below the base of the tumbler, and a
further disc of glass, similarly gold-
engraved, was fixed in the space left.
Obviously, perfect precision was needed
if an airtight fit was to be achieved.
Bohemia, about 1710. Hi. 241 mm (9*5 in.)
Silver leaf as well as gold was used in
Zwischengoldgldser, and additions of ruby,
pink and green transparent lacquers occur
on some of the more elaborate later
examples-. This renewal of the gold sand-
wich glass technique seems to have been
concentrated in Bohemia at one or two
workshops. The best specimens date from
the 1730’s, but less skilled work was done
until about 1755. The glasses were deli-
cately engraved in gold with hunting
scenes, figures of saints and shields of arms,
usually of Bohemian families. That the
artists were aware of their early Christian
predecessors seems apparent from the
motifs used for the base discs of their
tumblers, such as the IHS monogram, and
Christian emblems comparable to those of
the early gold sandwich discs. Views of
monasteries and of local Bohemian saints
are among the decorations, the detail on
the gold leaf being scratched on with a
point. Though tumblers were the com-
monest shape used, other forms are found,
such as the covered goblet illustrated.
iimkik with medallions in TwiuhtWtUfUii
Johann Joseph Mildncr, Lower Austria, 1800
Ht. 102 mm (4 in.)
The gold sandwich glass technique was
also used in a highly personal way by
Johann Joseph Mildner (1763-1808) of
Gutenbrunn in Lower Austria. His finely
decorated gift tumblers have medallion
panels, decorated with red lacquer and
gold leaf in the Zwischengoldglas technique,
let in flush with the surface of the glass in
spaces cut exactly to receive them. Por-
traits, monograms, arms, allegories, land-
scapes, still life pieces and representations
of saints were used by him as motifs.
he inserted in his medallions
miniature portraits painted in colours on
parchment. Sometimes the medallions
were inserted in the bottom of the tumblers
as well as on the sides. A poem might be
scratched on the reverse side of the
medallion. Signed works are known be-
tween 1787 and 1808. The glasses arc
usually cylindrical, and are among the best
work produced in the Kmpire period.
Mildner’s technique continued the tradi-
tion established by the ancient Roman
medallions and the Zwischengoldgldser.
Stevens & Williams, England, beginning of 20th
century. Ht. 220 mm (q in.)
Stevens 6k Williams of Brierley Hill,
England, produced a glassware akin to the
gold sandwich glass technique at the
beginning of this century. John North-
wood II was its inventor, and he developed
it about 1000, calling it ‘Silveria’. It was
made by sandwiching a layer of silver foil
between two layers of clear colourless or
coloured glass. Northwood’s method was
to blow the first bubble of glass to almost
full size before the foil was picked up from
the marver on the bubble. It was then
plunged into a pot of hot metal, which put
a protective film of glass over the foil.
Trails of coloured glass, often transparent
green, were put on the surface somewhat
haphazardly. The original silver lustre is
retained as long as no air gets between the
two layers of glass. Pieces of Silveria are
often marked ‘S’ and ‘W’, and the word
‘England’ or a small fleur de lys may
sometimes appear.
picture in verre eglomise
By Zeuner, Netherlands, late 18th century
Ht. 201 mm (8 in.)
Verre Eglomise: When gold or silver leaf
is fixed to the back of a sheet of colourless
glass and etched with a point, the work
known as ‘verre eglomise’ is produced. This
can be backed with colour, e.g., lacquer or
oil pigments, to show through the areas
where the foil has been scraped away. To
protect the unfired painting and gilding, a
layer of varnish or metal foil or another
sheet of glass can be laid on the back of the
object. The term ‘eglomise’1 is taken from
the name of an 18th-century French
picture-framer called Glomy, who used
the technique extensively. It was also used
by an Amsterdam artist, Zeuner; little is
known of him, apart from his signed work,
though he did visit England in 1778, when
he exhibited a ‘landscape in metals’ at the
Society of Artists of Great Britain. Both
Dutch and English scenes can be found,
usually signed by the artist. Some English
views date to the early years of the 19th
century.
PLATE IN verre eglomise
Kngland, early 19th century
Diam. 219 mm (8-6? in.)
SEGMENT OF DISH WITH GILT DECORATION
Italy, first half of the 16th century
Diam. 191 mm (75 in.)
The pictorial and decorative engraving of
gold leaf on glass has been practised since
before the Roman era, although the name
verre eglomise is fairly modern. Early gold
sandwich glasses can be considered to be
a form of verre eglomise, as can the later
forms of gold-glass, such as the Zwischen-
goldgldser. A variation on the theme was
suggested by Johann Kunckel in his book
Ars Vitraria Experimental!! (1679). In this,
in effect, two beakers were made to fit
exactly together as in the Zwischengold-
glaser, the inner surface of the outer beaker
being painted with delicate veining to
resemble marble. The outer surface of the
inner beaker had gold leaf applied, and was
engraved in the usual manner. When the
two were fitted together, a double effect of
marbling and gilding in the glass could be
achieved. The plate illustrated is a skilful
example of verre eglomise belonging to the
early 19th century.
Gilding on the Outer Surface: Gilding is so
often found in conjunction with enamelling
on glass that it is difficult to separate the
two techniques completely. Both gilt and
enamelled decoration are fired to the glass
in an enameller’s kiln. Islamic artists, who
were such great enamcllers, also produced
gilding on their glasses, though true gild-
ing did not usually appear until after the
fall of Fatimid Dynasty in 1171. It was
during the 12th century that the Egyptian
art of gilding glass was transferred to Syria,
when artists from Egypt took service at the
courts of the rulers of Syria and North-
West Mesopotamia. The Venetians also
notably combined gilding with enamelling
on their glasses, the gilding having a
peculiarly light, soft quality. Occasionally
they used gilding on its own for decoration,
as in the dish illustrated, which has an
inscription appearing through a ground of
light gilding.
Gilding put on the outer surface of the
glass was always in danger of being rubbed
off, and with use many poorly gilded glasses
lost all traces of their original decoration.
Unfired gilt decoration (see next column)
would almost certainly rub off. When gold
in powdered form or as thin gold leaf was
stuck to the glass with an oily or adhesive
medium (as described) it could be fired to
it in an enameller’s kiln. This was a far
more durable way to gild glass, but was
rarely entirely successful. Even the gilding
on 18th-century blue, green and opaque
white Bristol glass, which is notably good,
has suffered a little with the passage of
time. The best-known motifs on Bristol
glass are the gilt fret border as on the dark
blue wine-glass cooler illustrated, and a
chain and label inscribed with the names
of drinks, such as Shrub, Rum, Hollands,
Gin and Brandy which are found on many
decanters; the stoppers of the decanters
often bore the initial of the drinks con-
tained.
DSCANTO WITH ENGRAVED AND GII.T DECORATION
France, end ol the 18th century
Ht. 327 mm (12-88 in.)
A somewhat simplified description of the
process of gilding was given first by
Haudicquer de Blancourt in his De F Art
de la Verrerie (1679). The second and more-
convincing method he described involved
painting the surface of the glass with gum-
water, applying gold leaf and washing the
leaf over with a solution of borax. Glass
ground to an impalpable powder was then
sprinkled over the borax, and the vessel
was put into the furnace and fired. Unfired
gilding was described by an English author
in 1735. A combination of chalk, red-lead
and linseed oil was laid on the glass, gold
leaf was applied and, when the solution
had dried, was polished. Dr. W. Lewis,
writing in 1763, recommended a solution
of amber combined with oil of turpentine
and a small amount of white lead and
minium. When this varnish had been
painted on the glass the gold leaf was
applied, the varnish allowed to dry, and
then the gold decoration was polished.
EWER IN BLUE GI.ASS WITH GII.T DECORATION
India, 18th century A.D. Ht. 280 mm (11 in.)
Unfired gilding could never match the
toughness of gilding which was burned
into the surface of the glass. For this, gold
leaf alone could be applied, or a flux could
be used with it. Gold leaf on its own, as
described by Blancourt, demanded an
extreme nicety in the firing of the glass.
When a flux was used under the gold leaf,
the firing was not nearly so difficult, but
the gilding tended to stand out from the
surface of the glass. Instead of gold leaf, a
precipitate of gold could be mixed with the
flux and fired, but the brightness of the
gilding suffered. For polishing the gold,
wolf, bear or hog’s tooth, or polished agate
and Venetian soap and water, were recom-
mended in an 18th-century manuscript.
Among the striking glassware produced in
India between the late 17th and the 19th
centuries were examples of fine gilding.
The glass illustrated is characteristic of the
Mughal industry, the poppy sprays being
a motif much used during the reign of
Shah Jahan (1627-58) and later.
VASE WITH COVER WITH ENGRAVED
DECORATION
Granja de San lldefonso, Spain, second half of
the 18th century. Hi. 508 mm (20 in.)
{See also colour photographs 1$ and 2;)
This vase is an example of the fired gilding
practised at the Spanish royal glass factory
near the palace of La Granja de San
lldefonso, near Segovia. Spain wished to
rival the French and German glass indus-
tries, and thus encouraged foreign work-
men to establish glass-houses from the late
17th century. There was little success until
Juan Goyeneche, with the help of foreign
workmen, managed to produce a good-
quality clear colourless glass. Encouraged
by Queen Isabella, Buenaventura Sit, one
of Goyeneche’s workmen, set up a glass-
house in 1728 near the palace of La Granja,
where he specialised in mirrors and vessels
in the Catalan tradition. First a French-
man, then a Swede, took charge of hollow-
ware manufacture, until 1768, when a
German, Sigismund Brun, took over the
direction of the factory, introducing fired
gilding and cut and engraved decoration.
After a period of expensive mismanage-
ment, the factory passed in 1829 into
private hands, and thenceforward made
only common glass.

In the first years of the loth century dress
fashions did not change drastically, and
cluster and small pendent earrings
characteristic of the last decade of the 19th century continued to be popular. The few drop earrings produced were of moderate size and in ‘garland’ style, that is, characterized by very delicate garland and fluttering bow motifs, usually mounted with diamonds in millegrain settings. The source of inspiration lay in i 8th-century France, especially decorative and architectural details such as ormolu furniture fittings and cornices and stucco mouldings. Cartier in particular encouraged his designers to wander through the streets of Paris studying and sketching architectural details. Typical of earrings in this style was the pear-shaped drop, with a coloured gemstone or a diamond briolette, mounted as a swing centre within a garland of small, delicate leaf and flower motifs on a ribbon bow surmount. Other fashionable earrings assumed the form of diamond or coloured stone briolettes on fine articulated chains of millegrain-set diamonds.
Before the First World War
The delicacy of these jewels was enhanced by extensive use of platinum, a white, untarnishable precious metal which was heavy, hard to work and difficult to solder but of great structural strength so that only a little of it was required to produce a sturdy mount.
The desire to set diamonds in a mount whose colour did not alter their whiteness had been felt as early as the 18th century, and since then the traditional metal for diamond setting had been silver. The relative softness of silver, though, required a large amount of metal for the mount and had the great disadvantage of staining the skin and clothing. To overcome the problem, 19th-century jewellers devised a new kind of setting consisting of a laminate of silver and gold: silver at the front so as to set off the colour of the stone to best effect, and gold at the back for extra strength and to prevent the silver from tarnishing. Although platinum had been known as early as the 16th century in Colombia, it had not been extensively used in jewellery before the turn of the century because of the difficulties involved in working it, but from then on it became the favourite metal of the jeweller, and earrings set mainly in platinum were produced until the 1940s.
Around 1915 one can discern a change in the design of earrings from the garland
126 type to a form that anticipates features of 192os earrings. They tend to become longer
and their typical form is that of an elongated baton-shaped motif usually set with dia-
monds, supporting a drop, often a pearl or a larger millegrain-set diamond. Of
course the majority of these earrings continue to possess features typical of earlier
periods: they are entirely white, set with diamonds and pearls, in accordance with the
general preference for monochromatic and pale coloured jewels in vogue since the
late 19th century, and furthermore they continue to display the characteristic delicate
A pair of diamond pendent earrings in the garland style, circa i goo.
millegrain settings and fine foliate details. On the other hand the pronounced elongation and geometrical details foreshadow the designs of the following decade. They also well suited the female silhouette as recently redesigned by the Parisian couturier Paul Poiret, who liberated women from corsets with the introduction of fluid, high-waisted dresses. The emphasis in fashion was on straight, vertical lines which were counterbalanced by long sautoirs and long pendent earrings. An example of earrings where old and new features coexist is a pair of French platinum and diamond pendent earrings. The overall design and the millegrain settings conform to the garland style, while the size and length of the drop, and the geometrical mitre-shaped surmount anticipate earrings of the 1920S. Another interesting example is the elaborate pair of chandelier-design earrings, where the floral and foliate design is typical of the garland style but the size and tassel motifs are already Art Deco in spirit.
It was during these years that the screw fitting to clamp the earring to the lobe, which had first been developed in the last years of the i 9th century, gained popularity. Its advantage over traditional types of fitting was that it avoided the necessity of piercing the lobe, a practice which had begun to be regarded as barbaric. This was symptomatic of the general move towards liberating women from traditional constraints, exemplified in the field of fashion by the rejection of harmful items of clothing such as tightly laced corsets, and in social and political life by the movement to establish votes for women.
Decade by decade: the 1920s
The outbreak of the First World War in 191 ¢ brought a sudden end to the frivolous period of the Belle Epoque. Jewellery production ceased: precious metals and gemstones became scarce; platinum, an important material for the manufacture of nitric acid for explosives and for engine magnetos, disappeared from jewellery workshops; craftsmen turned their skills from jewellery to the armament industry, and women were forced to take up the jobs left vacant by men called to the front. By the end of the war in 1918, the newly emancipated women had adopted an androgynous look: they had shortened their dresses and cut their hair ‘d la garconne’ thus dispensing for the first time in history with what St Paul called their ‘crowning glory.’ Consequently earrings, more than ever, came to play a role of paramount importance by filling the gap between the bob and the shoulders, echoing the simple vertical line of the dress while adding a touch of frivolity and femininity to the new masculine look. During the 192os earrings undoubtedly became the most important form of jewellery, as can be seen in contemporary portraiture, photographs, advertisements, theatre and fashion designs, such as those by Jeanne Lanvin. Furthermore, the great number of surviving 192os earrings indicates both their popularity and copious production.
The common characteristic of all earrings of the early and mid-192os was their very pronounced vertical and geometrical line and the use of enamels and gemstones realized by the combination of precious gemstones such as emeralds, rubies, sapph-

ires and diamonds with semiprecious stones such as onyx, coral, jade, rock crystal,
turquof striking and contrasting colours. These daring new juxtapositions of colours wereoise and lapis lazuli, the latter frequently carved into cylinders, circles, oblong
P. 158 panels and drops. Good examples are the coral and onyx pendent earrings where the
bright red coral drop carved in a floral design is suspended from a long chain of black
onyx baton motifs. The interest in such vivid colours derived from Diaghilev’s Bal-
lets Russes which made such an impact on Paris and London society around 1910:
their bright juxtapositions of colours both in the costumes and stage sets shocked and
Left: a pencil and
gouache theatrical
design by Jeanne
Lanvin, October 1922. Note the long torpedo-shaped pendent
earrings.
Below: a pencil and gouache fashion design by Jeanne Lanvin, March 1924• Note the elongated carved coral torped-shaped pendent
earrings.fascinated audiences and at the same time set the tone for the jewellery and fashion of the following decade.
Besides novel and striking combinations of colour, there were innovative features in the setting and cut of stones. The favourite new style of setting gems was the `pave’, in which the gems paved the whole surface of the mount. This was often achieved by cutting the stones to fit the required shape of the mount and of the decorative pattern. It is clearly visible in the long pendent earrings designed by Boucheron, where emeralds, rubies and sapphires are cut with domed surfaces to fit into the stylized floral design on a diamond ground. It is interesting to note that besides the interest in contrasting colours emphasis was also placed on the difference between matt and polished surfaces, something that can be seen once again in the illustrated earrings by Boucheron; diamonds provide a sparkling surface while the coloured gemstones provide the matt.
It is not surprising that earrings such as these, possessing most of the novel features of the time (the pronounced elongated line, the stylized, almost geometrical, floral pattern and the juxtaposition of colour and texture) were selected for the Exposition International des Arts D6coratifs et Industrielles Modernes in 1925, an exhibition held in Paris with the purpose of presenting to the public novel and modern design. It is from the abbreviated title of the exhibition, ‘Art Deco’, that the popular name for the style of the mid- i 92os and early 193os derives.
Although jewellers working in this style found sources of inspiration in the artistic traditions of countries as exotic and far apart as Egypt and China, Persia and India or Japan, the most influential eastern tradition for earrings was that of China. Chinese jade plaques carved and pierced in traditional Chinese motifs of gourds, leaves and peonies, and symbolic Chinese ‘Bl’ were imported directly from the East and mounted by famous western jewellers as long earring pendants. The great popularity of this type of earring is demonstrated by its appearance in numerous variations in the pages of earring designs of the time by Cartier London. Green jade combined with stones such as onyx and diamonds suited the striking colour schemes of Art Deco —green, black and white — and offered an interesting combination of matt and polished surfaces. Besides exploiting Chinese-crafted materials, jewellers also frequently included in their earrings imitative Chinese motifs such as stylized pagodas and lanterns. The latter is clearly recognizable in the design of a pair of French emerald and diamond pendent earrings of the mid- 19 2os reproduced here.
Another feature typical of pendent earrings of this time is that they are always mounted in platinum and, unlike some earlier types of earrings, are provided with stud rather than screw fittings. These consist of a prong soldered at the back of the earring, which is inserted into the pierced earlobe and secured by a small, usually hexagonal, plate. It is released by a spring mechanism triggered by pressing a little metal tongue projecting from the edge of the plate. This new type of fitting was more secure, and was desirable for several reasons. Firstly, women now led a much more active and dynamic life, and precious earrings might be worn at night while dancing to the frenetic rhythms of the Charleston; secondly, they were very fragile: as has been mentioned, a great number of earrings were set with long thin plaques carved in semiprecious stones such as jade, which could crack if dropped; and thirdly, it was unobtrusive, a most important feature now that the back of the ear was visible with the newly cropped bob. All Cartier’s examples seem to have been attached in this way.
In the late 1920S long pendent earrings continued in favour, but they can be distinguished from their earlier counterparts by their fuller, usually triangular or lozenge-shaped outline reminiscent of a chandelier, hence the name ‘chandelier
P. 153 earrings’. This tendency is clearly visible in the magnificent pair of pearl and diamond earrings made by Cartier in London in 1928. Their shape is undoubtedly inspired by a crystal chandelier with central drop, stylized sconces and candles. A
P. 16o, second development is the gradual submergence of colours, to be replaced by the
r61 whiteness of pearl and diamonds. Contrast was achieved by combining in the setting a variety of diamonds of different cuts: baguettes, marquise, trapeze, crescent-, triangular-, pear-shaped, and brilliant-cut diamond, all of which reflect light in different ways. Coloured gemstones did not entirely disappear; a beautiful example is the bell-shaped pair of earrings set with diamonds and Indian ruby beads, by Dray-son of London. It is interesting to note how the choice of the gemstone influences the design of the earring, reminiscent of a bell-shaped Jaipur enamel ear pendant.
Towards the end of the decade the decorative arts were inspired by motifs deriving from industry and mechanical instruments: stylized motifs of nuts and bolts set with diamonds appear in earrings. Versatility became appreciated and jewels were constructed to be worn in different ways: a pair of bracelets could be combined to form a fashionable bandeau or sautoir and earrings could be combined together on a brooch mount, as in the last example shown on p. 159•
The 1930s
The 193os are characterized by a revolutionary innovation in the history of earrings:
the clip fitting. From Antiquity to the beginning of the loth century, the only way of
wearing an earring was to insert it or its suspension hook in a hole pierced in the lobe.
As we have already seen, in the early loth century the practice of piercing ears came
to be considered barbaric, and this prompted the use of the screw fitting as an altern-
ative. But although this did avoid piercing the lobe, it was not adequate to support
heavy earrings. The clip fitting of the 193os finally allowed women to wear heavy
earrings without piercing their ears, and moreover, by securely clasping the lobe,
enabled the earring for the first time to expand upward to decorate the upper part of
64, the ear. Rosettes, stylized flowerheads, shells, cornucopias, ribbons, spirals, comets,
165 stylized wings and curled leaves decorating the upper lobe were among the favourite
earclips. In many cases, the upward curl of the design following the natural line of
the ear meant designing one earclip for the right ear and another for the left, so that A pair of stained blue chalcedony, sapphire and diamond earclips, probably by Belperron, circa 1935, each designed as a foliate motif, from the collection of jewellery of the Duchess of Windsor.
they were not interchangeable. The advertisement for Boucheron in the magazine Femina of March 1934 underlines the elegance of the new compact diamond earrings; they were well suited to the hairstyles of the time, which could either be short or long but had the hair gathered at the top or back in a bun and brushed away from the ears in fluid waves.
The ever fashionable hoop earring was also adapted to the new fitting: an open circle securely clipped to the lobe, giving the impression of passing through a nonexistent hole. These clips, continuing the late 1920S trend, were set with variously cut diamonds in white metal mounts: white monochromatic jewels were still all the rage, coloured precious and semiprecious stones being used only sparingly to pick out the design. They often came as a set with the most characteristic jewel of the 1930s, the double-clip brooch the design of which they repeated on a reduced scale.
Although compact earclips were most popular at the time, the fashion for pendent earrings never completely died out and sometimes these 193os earclips were provided with a pendant, a tassel, a drop, or a cascade of ribbons which could be attached to the lower part of the clip to make it more suitable for formal occasions, thus continuing the use of ‘versatile’ jewellery.
For evening wear during this period, long pendent earrings, again set with multicoloured gemstones, were in favour, their voluminous shapes distinguishing them quite clearly from 192os examples. They tend to expand along the horizontal axis and lose the typical vertical character of the previous decade. Different and unusual cuts for the stones continued to be exploited for coloured stones as well as for diamonds, a good example being the two pairs of pendent earrings by Cartier London, 1931-32, set with aquamarines. By the late 193os established firms were already anticipating motifs and designs which were to gain importance in the following decade. This is well exemplified by the pair of citrine and diamond pendent earrings made in 1937 by Cartier London, which are long and voluminous in form, set in yellow gold with diamonds and citrines of various shades of russet and golden yellow, something which heralds the use in I 940s jewellery of attractive coloured gemstones of comparatively low intrinsic value — citrine, aquamarines, amethysts.
The 1940s
By 194o earclips were predominant everywhere. They had large gold surfaces, replacing those set with diamonds, and more sculptural shapes such as fluttering ribbon bows, bouquets of flowers and fan-shaped motifs in contrast to the geometrical lines of the 193os. After forty years of the supremacy of platinum in jewellery, gold came back on a large scale, and it is interesting to look at major jewellers’ archives, where the transition from platinum to gold coincides with the new decade. This is very clear in the records of Boucheron Paris, where earrings produced until August 1938 are mounted in platinum, but from then on always in yellow gold. The preference for gold in jewellery also had an economic reason: at the outbreak of the war platinum was again requisitioned by the armaments industry and the jeweller had to make the most of the scarce gold on the market. The regulations controlling the use of precious metals were extremely strict, especially in France. Anyone who wished to commission a piece of jewellery in gold had to supply the raw material of which twenty per cent would go to the state. Consequently jewellery was made of very thin gold, frequently of low carat. At the same time, the irregular supply of precious gemstones, such as diamonds from South Africa and rubies and sapphires from Burma and Siam, caused a scarcity on the market. This prompted the resetting of gemstones mounted in older pieces of jewellery and the widespread use of synthetic rubies and sapphires. When precious stones were used they were either small and inexpensive or (in the case of sapphires and rubies) synthetic. Semiprecious gemstones were favoured — topaz, aquamarine, amethyst and citrine being relatively cheap yet often large in size and highly effective. In spite of the great difficulties in the turmoil of war, jewellery remained a valuable source of portable capital, and therefore went on being designed, produced and sold. The angular geometrical designs of the late 1930s were not entirely discontinued. This may be seen in mitre-shaped earclips, where the accentuated geometrical design corresponds with 193o earclips, but the choice of stones, usually citrines and small rubies, heralds the new style. As in all periods of transition one finds old and new elements merging together.
The change is clearly visible if one looks at a page of Boucheron’s archival records.
P 171 Among the designs registered for 193 8 one finds earclips characterized by rigid and geometric forms (such as no. 11.306 and no. 35.354216) and a severe linear inverted U-shaped earclip, set with calibre-cut rubies. From 1940 onwards all the designs are naturalistic, and the success and popularity of the curled leaf earclip in polished gold is attested by its consecutive orders. According to the records this model was repeated and sold 14 times from December 1941 to September 1945. Another motif was an attractive gem-set flower spray held together by fluttering rib-
p. 167 bon ties. All the naturalistic earclips are fairly compact in form, filling the lobe or following the contour of the ear. Characteristically they continue to present rather stiff features lacking movement and fluidity: the ribbon ties knotted in bows are always realized in wide surfaces of polished gold which contribute to a bold and static impression. Other favoured motifs displaying similar characteristics are rosettes and plain ribbon bows such as in the design by Mauboussin, rosette and ribbons combined together, and scrolled drape motifs. A particularly striking example of the lat-
e. 166 ter type was produced by Hoeffer & Trabert, the American branch of Mauboussin; they are typically asymmetrical and rigid in design with a scrolled surface of polished white gold and a large step-cut aquamarine at the centre, the border set with small rubies and diamonds. They are accompanied by a large brooch of identical design set with an extremely large central aquamarine, which reflects an American preference for large and flamboyant jewels. The set of earclips and matching brooch or clip is a typical feature of this period. Such heavy brooches, worn on the lapel of tailored suits, had completely supplanted the double clip brooch which had been so popular in the 1930s.
Though compact earclips were the favourite type of ear ornament, pendent earrings were not completely dismissed. The extant examples and records in archives indicate that the pendent element is often very flimsy compared to the bold surmount often consisting of two chains with various terminations such as a cone or gold beads. One sees this, for instance, in earclip with a gold scrolled surmount supporting fine chain drops, which have to be regarded more as minor decorative elements than as pendants in their own right since they are not at all in proportion with the volume of the surmount. Again this is visible in earrings by Mellerio, both those made in 1946, set with a large topaz held by two chains tied in a knot which hang down as pendants, and those of stylized cornucopia design of 1947 which suspend five bead chains. Further evidence may be found in Boucheron’s archive designs of 1943, where tubular chains of articulated links form the pendent element of entwined ribbon surmounts. Besides earrings, necklaces and bracelets were often decorated with chain tassels similar to those found on pendent earrings. A few earrings with more voluminous pendants were also created, such as those formed of two chains of gold graduated disc motifs by Boucheron, or the ‘Ferroniere’ earrings of 1944 by Mellerio, designed as a graduated line of curled gold wire. Although attractive, these long earrings did not gain the same popularity as the compact earclips.
In the mid-194os there was a vogue for light-hearted earrings, amusing and frivolous designs like the small pendent watches with the dial in a border of calibre-cut sapphires designed by Van Cleef & Arpels, or miniature buckle and belt motifs commonly known asj’arretieres.
As the 194os decade was coming to its close, earclips began to show greater movement and lightness, with gold surfaces being broken up in woven patterns or worked into twisted rope motifs combined with coloured gemstones such as turquoises and amethysts; naturalistic patterns of flowers characterized by a greater sense of movement began to prevail over scrolled drape motifs, heralding the design of the new decade made between 1945 and 1950., the 195os.
Four designs from a catalogue by Van Cleef & Arpels, Part of a page of earring design of the 1950s from Boucheron Archives, showing the variety of shapes fashionable at the time.
The 1950s
The hairstyles of the i 95os gave women complete freedom to wear their hair piled on the top of the head, knotted on the nape in a tight chignon or in short or medium-length coiffures brushed away from the ears-, all these styles were appropriate for displaying both long pendent earrings and compact clips. After a decade in which large surfaces of yellow or red gold and clips of bold, stiff and sculptural design had reigned supreme, long pendent earrings set with opulent rainfalls of diamonds in white metal mounts returned triumphantly.
The economic boom which followed the deprived war years, coupled with the desire to celebrate a return to a more relaxed and uninhibited life-style, led to the development of an aesthetic in design which aimed at free, light and functional lines. Jewellery abandoned the straight, angular lines of Art Deco, and the large bulky forms of the I 94os, and evolved new, light, curvy, aerodynamic shapes which conveyed a sense of movement. The sources of inspiration were extremely varied, as were the ways they were interpreted; naturalism, abstraction, exoticism and conventionalism happily coexisted to suit the different tastes of women, who were free to choose whatever style they preferred after the many years of uniformity of fashion during the war.
The feminine ‘new look’ launched by Dior in 1947 remained, with slight variations, in fashion for a decade, and the exuberant lines of his evening gowns characterized by narrow waists, frothy and puffy ample skirts, and above all the generous d6collet6 and pointed, heart-shaped necklines, prompted the production of a vast selection of pendent earrings of curvy, free and informal line. Diamonds were, without any doubt, the gemstone par excellence for these important creations and maintained their supremacy throughout the 195os. They suited the rich brocades, embroidered silks and precious laces of evening dresses, and were an ideal companion to the mink coat, then at the height of its popularity, by adding a touch of glitter to the face surrounded by the dark gleam of a fur collar.
The great variety of forms included all sorts of curved and fluid shaped surmounts, supporting long and voluminous articulated tassels or cascades of similarly cut diamonds. The design of the surmount was extremely varied, sometimes ngthe clip reviv-
I 1 inspiration, sometimes opting fora more naturalistic form, and
P of 1930s i
sometimes choosing abstract shapes inspired by contemporary experiments in the visual arts. Rosettes, entwined ribbons, curved leaves, flowerheads, scrolls and question marks, turbans, shooting stars and fans are just a few of the motifs for surmounts, while below would hang articulated drops reminiscent of waterfalls, cascades of leaves, festoons, waterdrops, tassels and clusters of flowers. Glittering earrings drew attention to eyes made languid and feminine by heavy lines of eyeliner pointing up at the sides. A magnificent example is that designed by Van Cleef & Arpels with a I 930s inspired rosette surmount above a rich and fluid cascade of baguette and pear-shaped diamond drops. Pearls were as much a favourite as diamonds, and earrings designed as a scrolled surmount with a pearl drop or a pearl suspended from a chain of baguette diamonds were produced in many variations. Although overshadowed by the popularity of diamonds, coloured stones such as emeralds, rubies and sapphires often added a touch of colour to otherwise monochromatic evening creations.
The metal used for these important creations de grande soir was invariably white. Platinum returned, white gold was widely used, and palladium, the lightest metal of the platinum group, made its appearance: lightness of the mount was an essential factor in the creation of these long and voluminous pendent earrings which otherwise for lightness is the practice, in the early 195os, of channel-setting small baguette diamonds in rail-like mounts, while towards the end of the decade the stones were held in place by minute claws. It was a pride of the great jewellers to create mounts where the metal was so reduced that it was practically invisible.
Although pendent earrings were the most fashionable form of ear ornament for evening wear, compact earclips were also popular, and many of the examples described above were designed so that the long drop (up to 6 or 8cms) could be detached and the surmount worn by itself. Other diamond-set short earrings assumed the shape of turbans, helixes or flowerhead clusters. A favourite design, simple yet very successful, consisted of a single pearl or mabe pearl surrounded by a foliate border of variously cut diamonds, while more elaborate examples assumed the shapes of exotic diamond flowers such as fuchsias and orchids, with a short pearl drop. A particularly
P. 174 successful model was designed by Van Cleef & Arpels in the late i 94os as a stylized fuchsia with diamond petals and short pearl drop: it gained great favour in the 1950s and its popularity continues today with slight alteration. The same may be said of the diamond-set turban supporting an acorn drop mounted with pearls often of different
P. 175 colours, designed by Verdura in 1953.
The great majority of these earrings, both long and short, were provided with a clip or, less frequently, with a screw fitting. Pierced ears were definitely out of fashion in the fifties, probably not because they were thought to be wrong in any way, as in the early part of the century, but because of the unsightly effect of a pierced earlobe when earrings were not worn. Indeed they came to be considered socially improper for the well-to-do lady and confined to the lower classes. Women who had already had their ears pierced concealed the holes with clip on earrings.
Four designs in pencil and gouache by Boucheron, March—September 195 5. The first has a rosette
surmount suspended with a cascade of baguette and brilliant-cut
diamonds, the second is designed as a stylized leaf supporting a cascade of baguette diamonds; the third and fourth are also cascades set with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds, the last supporting a larger brilliant-cut diamond drop.
Yellow gold was the favourite material for daywear earrings which were usually short, in the shape of rosettes, fans, hoops of Creole inspiration, leaves of stylized or naturalist form, spirals, turbans, florets, helixes and clusters, at times decorated with drops and tassels. The ribbons and bows of the i 94os continued in lighter and often informally sketched forms, often combined with leaves and sprays of flowers. Typical of these earrings of the 195os was the varied and imaginative use of the metal, worked into corded wires, pleats, passementeries, woven or fretted patterns and tubular or plated chains sparingly set with small diamonds or coloured stones such as turquoises, sapphires, rubies and emeralds, combined in interesting chromatic contrasts, as seen in the examples designed by Mellerio and Van Cleef & Arpels.
Among the most typical earclips of the time is that designed as a ‘boule’ of gold wire, set with different combinations of gemstones such as rubies and turquoises (the favourite semiprecious stone of the fifties), or rubies and sapphires with diamonds.

The Exotic: the 1860s and 1870s
In the 18 6os hair went up again and earrings returned to favour. Their comeback was marked by a great variety of types and styles. Size fluctuated throughout the period, but grew to enormous proportions in the late i 86os and early 18’70s, when earrings almost rested on the shoulder. This fashion, although started in France and England, spread throughout Europe, and we also learn from an article in the trade-paper Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith of 187 5 that: ‘long pendent earrings are coming into fashion again in America.’
It was the great age of novelty. Women suspended from their ears any unusual and bizarre object they could think of. Among the favourite shapes for earring pendants
were windmills, buckets, shovels, hammers, hens brooding in baskets, and hum P. 78 ming birds. Even exotic creatures such as Brazilian beetles were suspended from ears
in the place of gemstones. Goldfish swimming in bowls were simulated by tinted in P 03 taglios. The Chinese-inspired ‘willow pattern’ is seen on many plate-shape gold earrings from 1870, enamelled in blue and white with the traditional pagoda, willow tree and figures on a bridge. Arrow earrings also appear to have been in great favour, P 79 either simply attached to the earlobe or designed in two sections so as to appear to transfix it.
Earrings of these types were not products of ‘haute joaillerie’ and not intended to be particularly artistic-, they were meant to be amusing and decorative, ‘novelty’jewellery to be worn for a season and then discarded. This explains firstly why they are always of little intrinsic value, being made of thin gold leaf decorated with enamel rather than gemstones, and secondly why few of them survive. They were certainly not the type of jewel to pass down in the family as an heirloom.
Interest in travel and advances in scientific knowledge together with the development of new industrial techniques, all affected the design of earrings around the middle of the century. New materials such as ‘Blue John’ or Derbyshire spar, lava from Vesuvius, colourful feathers of hummingbirds from Mexico, and beetles from Brazil, whose hard and green iridescent shell proved a successful and unusual sub-
stitute for gemstones, all made their appearance. The beetles were either simply at P. 107 tached to a gold hook to be inserted through the pierced earlobe or grouped more 126 elaborately in girandole arrangements. There were also exotic flowers, such as cas- P. roe
cades of stained ivory fuchsia blossoms; bunches of bulrushes set with turquoises baskets of flowers held by a hand, and acorns. The popularity of the latter is demon-
1o6 strated by its appearance among the drawings of Mellerio and by the firm’s ad-
vertisement in the magazine La Femme et la Famille et le Journal des Jeunes Personnel. p. 102, Animals were also favourite subjects; among the most amusing are frogs ready to
103 spring from bulrushes, nesting birds, brooding hens and coiled serpents entwined
with a vine spray. Hammers, ladders and well-pulleys with buckets reflect an interest P. 78 in industry. Although the fashion for novelty earrings appears to have started in
France, it assumed its most bizarre forms in England.
Classical revival
Another leitmotiv of i 9th-century jewellery is revivalism, a means of enriching the present by looking at the past. This had developed in the I 830S when designers such as Pugin in England and soon after Froment Meurice in France turned to Gothic art as a source of inspiration. Few examples of earrings in Gothic style are known, and those are usually made from Berlin iron, a material particularly well suited to reproducing Gothic tracery. The full bloom of revivalism occurs in the 18 6os and I 870s and this is particularly true of jewellery. The styles to be revived were mainly pre-Classical and Classical, Italian and French Renaissance and the period of Louis XVI.
Contemporary archaeological discoveries in Etruria and in the Greek Islands such as Knossos, Melos and Rhodes were bringing to light large quantities of exceptional ancient jewellery. The importance and popularity of earrings in antiquity was in some ways comparable to the 18 6os and 18 70s- It was natural, therefore, that antique shapes, designs and techniques were copied or reinterpreted in this period.
Among the leaders in this style were the Castellanis in Rome and Naples; they not only copied and reinterpreted the examples of the past but also set antique fragments such as engraved gemstones and coins as part of their interpretation of ancient jewellery. This is particularly evident in works like the gold and cornelian earrings set with Roman intaglios depicting a trophy of arms and a hunting scene.
P 97 Ernesto Pierret was another famous jeweller in Rome who produced earrings of Etrusco-Roman inspiration. A good example is the pair designed as a triangular panel decorated with bead-work and corded wire typical of Greek and Etruscan goldsmithwork flanked by baton motifs with spherical drop terminals probably inspired by the Roman crotalia which Pliny describes as ornaments designed to tinkle at every movement. This was a favourite motif for earrings and many examples survive where the baton-shaped drops are combined with various surmounts such as the Athenian owl with spread wings perched on a pediment.
The taste for Classical designs was widespread throughout Europe. Similar examples were produced by firms such as Robert Phillips in England and Eugene Fonte-
P 109 nay in France. Fontenay made great use of bead-work and corded wire in the mounts of his earrings, which were frequently set with carvings or enamel miniatures of scenes from Pompeian frescoes and had fringed drops and palmette or rosette surmounts.
Gold and pearl earring in archaeological revival style, circa 1870, inspired by the ancient Roman `crotalia’.
This archaeological fad was such that as early as 18 59 it became the target of satirical sketches. In ‘A Young Lady on the High Classical School of Ornament’, Punch (15 July 1859) depicted a devotee of the Antique style with an excess of jewels, tiara, hair ornaments, necklaces, bracelets, pendants and long earrings, all of Greek and Etruscan inspiration.
Some revivalist earrings derive specifically from well known antique prototypes while others are merely pastiches of different archaeological motifs. A good example
of the first type is the Etruscan a baule earring of 6th/5th century BC pedigree, which p. io, reappears, almost identical, in the late i 86os. It has one closed side, with a decoration of applied stylized flowerheads, rosettes and wirework typical of ancient examples. The enamel decoration is undoubtedly prompted by close examination of ancient a baule earrings, where inlays of glass paste, which unfortunately have barely survived, were used to enliven the decoration. This represents an attempt by the 19th-century jeweller to reproduce in its entirety the ancient prototype and stresses the past importance of polychrome work.
Subjects such as rams’ heads, miniature Eros figures riding birds, amphorae of p. 99, various shapes and blackamoors’ heads popular in late Classical Greek, Hellenistic and Etruscan earrings were revived in abundance. Not only were the forms derived from Antiquity but also the techniques: granulation was largely used — although never reaching the finesse of Antiquity — with wirework and beading to pick out details, and, as in the past, enamels were preferred to gemstones.
Other popular shapes of Antiquity which had never been related to ear ornaments were now converted into earrings, e.g., Carlo Giuliano’s miniature oil lamps decorated with black enamel, modelled on lamps used for votive offerings in temples and sanctuary precincts.
Even 19th-century ‘novelty’ materials such as lava from Vesuvius, Wedgwood jasper-ware and tortoiseshell were adapted to earrings inspired by the Antique. Somehow the frilliness typical of the 19th century creeps through the severe and linear shapes of archaeological Classicism, so that they could never be mistaken for
the real thing. This is particularly true of two pairs of earrings where Roman gold p. 98 low-relief and Greek amphorae are suspended from circular surmounts decorated with frivolous 19th-century flower motifs.
The typical fitting of all these earrings is a thin S-shaped gold hook inserted in the ear from front to back, at times secured, like many ancient examples, by an additional semicircular catch at the back.
Notable as a successful reinterpretation of Classical ideals is the emerald and diamond parure commissioned by Napoleon III from Mellerio; although its overall design is definitely archaeological, its pendent earrings of sober, sculptural shape p. 8o have no strict connection with any ancient prototype.
Besides Greek, Roman and Etruscan art, Egypt provided an important source of inspiration, not only in terms of shapes and designs but also of colour choice and com-bination. Interest in ancient Egypt was stimulated by the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 and by the contemporary excavations in the Nile Valley carried out and
P 96, published by Auguste Marlette. Falcons, papyri, mosaic or gold Pharaoh masks and
113 scarabs were soon fashionable motifs to adorn the ears, and dramatic combinations of bright colours such as lapis or turquoise blue, deep red and opaque white typical of Egyptian art gained favour throughout Europe.
Renaissance and 18th-century revival
The Renaissance revival, with its interest in sculptural and figurative shapes and enamel-work, began in the 1840s in France but did not affect earrings until the 18 6os and 18 70s. Among the influential jewellers working in this style was Carlo Giuliano, an Italian who spent most of his working life in England. Among his most
P. striking works is a pair of earrings in gold and polychrome enamel, opaque and translucent, each in the form of a stork devouring a serpent. In this case not only does the enamel technique and the bold sculptural shape remind us of the famous Renaissance figurative pendants, but the symbolism too is Renaissance; the stork devouring a snake standing for the soul overcoming carnal pleasure derives from a well known Renaissance emblem.
Fantastic creatures such as dragons and griffins with pronounced sculptural quality and the widespread use of polychrome enamels were typical of the French Renaissance revival. What gives away the fact that these belong to the 19th and not the 16th century is their passion for ornate and frilly detail, which always tends to creep in and
P. detract from the boldness of the sculptural effect. This is particularly evident in the
fringe of pearls and rosette surmount of the griffin earrings reproduced.
P 79 The gold, polychrome enamel and hardstone cameo earrings, each set with a cameo mask holding a floral festoon suspended from a tree-headed mask surmount, which the London jeweller John Brogden exhibited at the Paris Universal Exhibition oft867, although imbued with a certain Renaissance feeling, are closer to late i 8th-century Neoclassicism. The choice of differently coloured agate for the two cameos of Classical Dionysus masks is a rather unusual feature for the period. It is interesting that in this case both the original design and the finished jewels survive.
P. 74, In France, among other revivals, that of the Louis XVI style was particularly
77 favoured by the Empress Eug6me who, anxious to emulate Marie Antoinette in establishing in France a ‘grand’ monarchic tradition, revived, together with the crinoline, all the girandoles, bows and ribbon motifs of French 18th-century jewellery. She commissioned J. -E. Bapst, the famous French jeweller, to remount part of the crown jewels in Louis XVI style. The great majority of pendeloque and girandole earrings revived at this time in France were set with pearls and diamonds, but Eugenie’s favourite stone was the emerald, and it quickly became the most popular coloured gemstone in France.
Fin de sihle
As a consequence of the opening up of Japan to trade with Europe in the 18 5os and of the revolution there in 1866, Japanese art, until then little known in the West, started to exert considerable influence on the evolution of ornament and decoration. In the mid- i 870s it became popular in Europe to mount small pieces of Japanese metalwork as jewellery. Shakudo and shibuichi, the metal inlay techniques developed by Samurai swordmakers for the decoration of sword mounts and guards, entered the world of jewellery. Shibuichi and shakudo plaques and miniature fans decorated with flowers, butterflies, insects, birds and bamboo provided with a small suspension hook became very fashionable earrings and the Europeans soon began to imitate them in chased gold and silver. A good example is the pair of pendent earrings in the shape of a rectangular plaque decorated with fan-shaped motifs.
The increasing ease of travel in Europe encouraged interest in foreign countries and people liked to bring home souvenirs of the localities they visited. Italy with its sights and monuments was amongst the favourite destinations. Souvenir earrings are usually made of materials which are typical of a certain location: Roman mosaics, or micromosaic, made of minute glass tesserae depicting sights of Rome or scenes from the Campagna, and Florentine mosaic made of larger pieces of variously coloured inlaid semiprecious hardstone, usually in floral patterns, were extremely popular. Roman and Florentine mosaics had in fact been used in jewellery since the early i 800s; the earliest form of mosaic earrings consisted of a simple oval plaque connected to a smaller panel surmount with fine gold chains. Later examples dating from the i 86os and 187os are much more varied in shape and often reminiscent of archaeological revival designs. Early examples of Roman mosaic earrings have almost unbelievably tiny glass tesserae, producing a precision of detail which matches that of painting. Later examples are much coarser.
Among the plethora of 18 6os and 18 7os earrings another type can be clearly distinguished, known as the ‘fringe’ earring. This usually consists of a circular or oval surmount above a fringe of articulated pointed drops. It was popular throughout Europe but especially fashionable in England around 1870 where the drops tight-
Three earring designs in pencil and gouache of the late i 870s, from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. Note the fringe ornament typical of the time.
ened up to form a compact fringe of tapered gold chains in contrast to their Continental counterparts where the pendent elements are frequently fewer and well spaced. The distinction is clear if one compares the French designs illustrated in Mellerio’s archives with English examples set with carbuncles, Wedgwood jasperware plaques
P. 123 or decorated with white and royal blue or turquoise coloured enamel. The inset of small pearls or diamonds in a starshaped motif at the centre of the gemstone or enamelled boss surmount is another typical feature of jewellery of the time. Archaeological influence is frequently noticeable on the surmounts of these earrings. Most examples are fairly voluminous and long, measuring approximately 6 to io cms; in spite of this, their weight is negligible since the fringes that constitute a large portion
p. i 1 of the earring are made of hollow gold drops or of light gold chain. More expensive examples of diamond-set fringe earrings, though less common, are well known.
Naturalism in jewellery reached its peak in this period under the spell of the Parisian Oscar Massin, whose naturalistic and botanically accurate creations characterized by tremblant and pampille decoration became a model for jewellers throughout Europe. Cascades of flowerheads, sprays of leaves and flowers and single flowerhead
P. 124, clusters were to be seen on grand occasions. The designs by Mellerio and by the Ger-
125 man Frederick Kreuter reproduced here illustrate the variety of forms fashionable at the time.
The star motif had been popular in jewellery since the 18 6os. At first its design was exploited mainly for brooches, and only in the late 18 6os was it introduced into earring design. Typical of this date are earrings mounted with large carbuncles, amethyst cabochons or enamelled gold bosses inlaid at the centre with a pearl or diamond
p. 116, star-shaped motif. In other examples the whole earring takes on the shape of a star
117 suspended by a simple hook from the ear. The basic six-pointed star offered scope for many variations: the points could multiply up to eighteen, of different lengths and widths. In the late 18 8os and 189os knife-wire settings came into favour and this, together with a taste for light and less symmetrical shapes, prompted the creation of elaborate earrings in the form of off-centre stars, comets and shooting stars. The favourite gemstones for this type of ornament were diamonds since they could best suggest real stars; less expensive versions were set with half pearls and very pale opals. Many sets were made in this style, comprising earrings, a brooch, and a necklace which could also be worn as a tiara; a design by Mellerio commissioned by Queen Isabella II of Spain is a good example.
Towards the end of the century the fashion for large and varied earrings subsided in favour of smaller and more sober ear ornaments, either clusters or single gemstones, simply claw- or collet-set in very unobtrusive, delicate mounts provided at the back with a flattened hoop fitting. The fashionable design for daywear in the 18 gos consisted simply of a single pearl embellished with small diamonds. At night the favourite earring would be a single diamond of varying size. The change towards smaller earrings was this time dictated not so much by hairstyles, since the ears were
Four ink designs for pendent earrings by Kreuter, Germany, 1867-70. The top one is star shaped; the second and fourth decorated with star and fringe motifs; and the third with a fringe only.
A collection of North Italian gold
pendent earrings, circa i 800. Their large size, linearity and two-dimensional, geometrical quality are typical of early t9th-century earrings in Europe. Many include a central plaque in relief stamped out of a thin sheet of gold, to simulate a cameo with a profile of a Classical warrior, a type of imagery which had become popular at the time of the Napoleonic campaign in Northern Italy Of 1796-97. Note the contrast between the austere profiles and the delicate lace-like filigree border decorated with typical hollow hemispherical motifs.
still left uncovered, as by the fashion for high frilled collars during the day and for the ‘collier de Chien’, or dog collar, at night, both of which dressed the neck and filled in the space between ears and shoulders. Long pendent earrings which visually interfered with high collars and neck ornaments disappeared almost completely. The few pendent earrings of the 189os were of moderate size, in the shape of very delicate pearl and diamond articulated drops which moved and reflected light.
The discovery of the Cape diamond mines in South Africa brought a plentiful supply of fine stones onto the market. A single, large, flawless, white diamond of high quality was now usually preferred to a fussy arrangement of small stones. The new abundance of diamonds also led to new ways of cutting: cushion-shaped diamonds, fat and bulky in order to retain the maximum carat weight of precious material, became thinner and circular in shape, with the culet or back facet reduced to a pin-point, thus exploiting to the maximum the exceptional optical quality of diamonds to reflect and disperse light. The new brilliant cut involved a waste of up to 5o% of the rough crystal but the final result was thought to be worth it.
Apart from diamonds, a variety of other stones were set in cluster earrings; often a larger coloured stone would be mounted within a border of smaller diamonds. Black Australian opals, together with pale and metallic sapphires from Montana, appeared on the market in the 189os; amethysts and peridots were great favourites and with their purple and lime green colours well complemented the pastel tints of contemporary dresses. In the 189os pearls and half-pearls were the preferred alternative to the more expensive diamond borders and with their delicate sheen particularly suited the soft silks in fashion during the last decade of the century.
The Art Nouveau movement, which reacted against the repetitiveness and lack of imagination in the decorative arts and jewellery and challenged the excessive emphasis placed on intrinsic value, promoted many new, original and daring designs — but not for earrings. There are hardly any Art Nouveau earrings, and the few that survive must be considered exceptions. An extraordinary pair created by Rene Lalique is definitely a ‘one off’. They are typical in their choice of less expensive materials (large milky opals, translucent enamels echoing the colour of the opals, richly coloured matt gold) and in the flowing line of the decorative thistle motif rendered in enamel at the front and engraved at the back. But they are unique in their unconventionally large size and their detachable clip fitting, a feature which became normal only in the I 930s. It is possible that such clip fittings were devised to allow the earrings to be worn as necklace pendants.

automata - clocks, barometers and
musical boxes
THE DICTIONARY DEFINITIONof automata is’things which are self-moving or mechanical contrivances which imitate the motions of living beings’. In antique collecting terms, this means old clocks, watches, barometers, musical boxes, singing birds, and anything clockwork from an early Egyptian water clock to the first His Master’s Voice phonograph.
The antique market in clocks is still surprisingly reasonable compared with other fields, but unless you have a strong do-it-yourself bent and are one of those people who can put the piece back again, it is advisable to be a bit chary of some of the bargains offered by general dealers with the vague remark that ‘it only needs cleaning’. Unobtainable spare parts are costly to make, and if you want the clock to go it is better to pay more for a working clock or watch from a specialist dealer. Collecting fine clocks is an expensive hobby, especially if your taste is in French porcelain pieces, which I have seen in the most unusual shapes, such as an artist’s palette, a violin or an old mill complete with moving water wheel driven by real water.
It is quite the fashion now for women to wear a Victorian or Edwardian half-hunter watch on a long gold chain. This has given a boost to the trade in such watches which until recently have only commanded a second-hand price equal only to their melting down value. These beautiful pieces, often set with coloured enamels, can be bought for between ;C5 and Cio and make impressive presents.
There is also a boom in barometers. Items which fetched around £15 a few years ago are now changing hands for three times the price and, unfortunately for us, going to foreign dealers at a most depressing rate. An inlaid Sheraton stick barometer will certainly command a price from C40 upwards but the enchanting Admiral Fitzroy model, produced in Victorian times can cost as little as £5 and give just as much pleasure. Really early barometers, eighteenth century or older, are right out of reach of any but the serious collec-
tor and I have seen a reproduction Quare fetch more than c80.
ian clockwork novelties are ajoy to collect. and even though
nana is fast on the way in, pieces can be bought for a reason-
price. Old stereoscopes through which one views sepia col-cured three dimensional slides – rabbits which jump up and down at the turn of a knob and the multitudinous fairground novelties –are no longer to be found on junk stalls, but now command a real value.
Scientific instruments and animated pieces have a long history and can be traced to Islamic origins in the tenth century. Automata as we know it today really began to be developed only in the eighteenth century when moving figures and animated snuff boxes started to play sweet music or burst into chirruping song. The delicate singing bird box was first made in Switzerland when the intricate mechanism allowed a tiny bird to spring from its jewelled prison and give forth a melodious whistling sound. Such items of course, are extremely expensive now, nevertheless more modern examples made between 186o and 1930 can still be bought, but at prices above C50.
The musical box dates from Regency times and a collection is still within reach of the moderate purse. Most popular is the type which consists of a brass cylinder with projecting pins which produces sound when turned into contact with a resonant comb. Such boxes often play eight or ten tunes, the titles of which appear in illuminated lettering inside the lid. One can still purchase larger pieces too, which play on the insertion of a penny in the slot.
books to read
Clocks and watches
The collectors dictionary of clocks, H Lloyd, Country Life, ,CIO ros
The plain man’s guide to antique clocks, W Bentley, Joseph, x6s
Old clocks,,? Scherer, Hallwag, 8s 6d
18 Old clocks, E Wenham, Spring Books, 12s 6d
Clocks, S Fleet, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Ci ros
Old clocks and watches and their makers, F_7 Britten, Spon, £77s
The story of watches, T P Camerer Cuss, MacGibbon & Kee, I 5S
Chats on old clocks, H A Lloyd,Watches, C Clutton & G Daniels, Batsford,,C7 7s
The grandfather clock, E L Edwards, Sherratt, ios
Barometers
The standard reference on barometers is Old English barometers by G H and E F Bell. This book is like gold dust and virtually impossible to come by. We have it on the best
authority, however, that the authors are now updating this fine work for republication as soon as possible.
Musical boxes
and instruments
Horse brasses and other small items for the collector (singing birds and musical boxes), G B Hughes, ki ros
London and the
Home Counties
Charles Stewart Ltd Wigmore St, London W  probably have the largest barometer stock in England. They ship all over the world and are expert restorers. Specialists in mechanical musical instruments, who will also repair, are rather hard to find. One such is S F Sunley 81 George St W i, himself featured, in fact, in our drawing at the start of this chapter. Singing birds and musical boxes are also an important feature of this stock. Camerer Cuss & Co were estab-
lished in 1788 during the reign of George III, and have an extensive collection of antique clocks and watches at their New Oxford St address. They also carry stock at 5 New Cavendish St. The fact that they have two addresses is an indication of the important stock they carry. Expert repair work to all kinds of automata is also undertaken. Incidentally, if you have bought an early watch such as a Victorian hunter it is much better to take it for repair to a specialist such as Camerer Cuss or in fact to any recognised dealer in such items. It isn’t the fact that the workmanship is necessarily better than a local watchmaker, but such dealers are more likely to have quantities of spare parts available from watches of the same period as yours which have been broken up, whereas it is unlikely that you will have the same luck through a modern silversmith and watch dealer.
Stockists of one of the largest selections of clocks in the United Kingdom is the firm of Huggins & Horsey Ltd 26 Beauchamp Place SW3. They also have a range of barometers.
The name of Aubrey Brocklehurst 124 Cromwell Rd SW7 is a must for the clock collectors’ address book. Close to the West London Air Terminal, a fine selection of mantle and grandfather clocks is offered.
Two more first-class dealers are Charles Frodsham 173 Brompton Rd SW3 and D Bouldstridge 47 Lower Belgrave St SW 1. Both are specialist is antique clocks and the former has been awarded the Royal warranty.
The Regency House Marlow Bucks are specialists in English and French clocks; and grandfather clocks are the metier of Harris & Woodward Amersham Bucks.
Museums to visit i
Gershom-Parkington memorial collection of clocks and watches,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk Museum of British Transport, London SW4 Science Museum,
London SW7
Museum of Ironfounding, Coalbrookdale, Staffs(locomotives) Public Museum, Rochester, Kent (clocks)
Snowshil]. Museum,
Broadway, Glos (clocks)
The Tramway Museum, Crick, Derbyshire
Usher Art Gallery, Lincoln (watches)
Whipple Museum of the History of Science, Cambridge (scientific instruments)
Willis Museum, Basingstoke, Hants (clocks)
I de Haan & Son Waltham Cross Herts have an important stock of barometers. Mr de Haan normally deals only with the trade, but will make an exception for the serious collector. First, however, please telephone Waltham Cross 22756.
In Portobello Rd we recommend Graham Webb who has a large stock of musical boxes, including the type you put a penny into and watch the huge brass disc move round whilst playing a gay tune. He can be found at 93, and will also undertake repair work.
Malcolm GardnerBradbourne Vale, Sevenoaks, Kent is a leading specialist on antique watches. He also stocks a large collection of horological reference books.
Some other dealers in London and the Home Counties
E & M Parker, Blackheath SE3 (longcase clocks and barometers)
Daniel Desbois, Carey St WC2 (clocks and barometers)
Prides of London, Sloane StSWi (clocks and barometers)
W A Pinn, Dunstable, Beds (clocks)
Kennet Gallery, Newbury, Berks (clocks)
Southern England
Antiques through the post is the stock in trade of Valentine Ackland, Frome Vauchurch, Maiden Newton, near Dorchester, Dorset. Miss Ackland publishes a mailing list of her complete stock on a regular basis, and undertakes to post goods to any part of the world. As musical boxes is one of her specialities, enthusiasts should certainly write for a copy of her catalogue.
The name of George Bell instantly means barometers and he is the Wing Commander and Mrs
Guy Marsland of Littlebury,
Essex, started their barometer
and antique business after he
retired from the Royal Air Force.
An excellent stock with a
friendly welcome particularly
for the new collector
author of a really reliable reference book on the subject. Mr Bell has a shop in Winchester, next to
the Cathedral. Here he sells antique clocks and barometers and will undertake expert repair work.
Peter Carmichael Brighton, offers a  wide selection of barometers all
working order; and Yellow Lantern Antiques at nearby Hove keep
French clocks in stock.
We have often driven through the village of Nately Scures near Bas-
ingstoke, Hants and have always been filled with curiosity about
how it got the name to say nothing of how to pronounce it. Paul Frank
Ltd Oakfield, Nately Scures has a good stock of clocks and barometers at this address and also at The Green, Brasted, Kent. Gem
Antiques Bournemouth Hants is another happy-hunting-ground for
timepieces.
Martin Hutton of Battle, Sussex is
a ‘must’ visit for the collector of nineteenth century English and
French clocks.
Some other southern dealers Fordharn Mote Antiques,
Lewes, Sussex (scientific instruments) At,W Porter & Son, Hartley
Wintney, Hants (clocks)
A Bird, Potbridge near Odiham, Hants (clocks and barometers) an
authoritative writer on this subject. The Manor House, Byfleet,
Surrey (clocks)
Wales and the west country Whilst driving through the west country recently we took refuge from a cloudburst in what we thought was a bric-a-brac shop. Our rain-sodden spirits turned to delight on finding that we had unwittingly discovered a veritable treasure chest of musical boxes and Victorian automata in the back room. We were offered not one, but a choice of fifteen His Master’s Voice phonographs of early date. Yahn and Yoy Rodber call themselves ,specialists in the unusual’, and have a wide selection of fairground novelties – we were particularly taken with The Drunkard’s Dream-and also some very fine examples of English and continental musical boxes, which the Rodbers also collect. Musical instruments, anything from a harp to a harpsichord, are also stocked. This delightful shop is in Bridport, Dorset. If you’re looking for a particular piece, we suggest you telephone first, Bridport 28oi.
A large stone lion, standing at least fifteen feet high, guards the premises of Sidney Vaux, The Antique Galleries Ilchester, Som. Mr Vaux used to be an important
private collector of automata until he turned his attentions to veteran cars. He always has some good pieces in stock even though he has sold his own collection.
Reginald Andrade somehow finds room for clocks and small items ot automata amongst his vast stock of ceramics and silver plate. At
Plympton, Devon Mr Andrade I p
had at least fifty clocks at my last visit. He also showed me, amongst other unusual items, a brass gadget which pops up a pipeful of tobacco on the insertion of a halfpenny.
Some other dealers in Wales and the west country Edward Nowell, Wells, Som (barometers)
Gilbert Morris, Ffynnongroew, Flint (clocks and barometers)
J Cleverly, Chipping Norton, Glos (longcase clocks)
Curiosity Shop, Portishead, Som (longease clocks)
Roger Warner, Burford, Oxon (scientific instruments)
Midlands and the north Malcolm Anderson of Plum Park Antiques, Paulerspury nr Towcester Northants, is a long-established
40 Mr Porter of Hartley Wintney, Hampshire with just a few of his antique clocks. His family have been clockmakers for 300 years, he is keen to hear from anyone who owns a Porter-made clock dealer who always has barometers in stock. One model I saw was a coach house barometer which had five dials, two of which were detachable. The thermometer dial would be placed on the mantle of an inn bedroom in Georgian times and the hygrometer dial in the bed itself. If either reading were unsatisfactory to the guest the management were obliged to put some more fuel on the fire, or the chambermaid would be sent up to put a copper warming-pan through the bed.
Herbert Sutcliffe Ing Hey Farm, Briercliffe, near Burnley, Lanes, can offer a comprehensive stock of most kinds of automata, and will ship directly to all parts of the world. Just down the road, so to speak, is Brierfield, and the premises of Y H Blakey & Sons who are specialists in clocks and musical boxes.
On the main A4i from Birmingham to Liverpool is Whitchurch (Herefordshire) and F W Hancock who specialise in grandfather clocks. No early closing day there. Patrick Kirk Knaresborough, Yorks, I think might be fairly described as a tuneful dealer, for his speciality is singing birds and musical boxes. Normally closed all day Thursday.
Barron of Stirling offers fine barometers and will also undertake restoration.
Some other dealers in the midlands and north
Mercy jeboult, Pershore, Worcs
(clocks)
T & S Hyde, 59 Scotgate, Stamford, Lines (clocks & watches)
East Anglia
We think the most energetic person we have ever met is Wing Com-
mander Guy Marsland, a prominent dealer in barometers, weapons, naval and military items. He positively staggers other dealers by his ability not only to attend the early morning markets regularly but by the speed at which he covers the country on buying trips. The early bird catches the worm must be his motto, and this philosophy finds its rewards in an excellent stock of barometers which hang round the walls, and in rows on hangers like so many pairs of trousers. His interest doesn’t stop at barometers and his shop, The Old Carpenters Arms, Littlebury, near Saffron Walden, Essex is filled with unusual types of marine automata, and military antiques of which he has a fine personal collection. Wing Commander and Mrs Marsland live on the premises and will be happy to see serious buyers out of hours, by appointment (Saffron Walden 2346).
For a business with a delightful name you can’t beat ‘Riverside Chimes’ Stratford St Mary, Essex, where you will find a good stock of longcase and other antique clocks.

Like Romanesque furniture, Gothic furniture was decorated by means of carving and painting. The rails and stiles of the panels were often cut in the form of mouldings, and the panels themselves were usually carved. The motifs of the carving were those of the Romanesque style, except for the Gothic character of the tracery and the addition of the linen-fold motif and animal and foliage themes. The Gothic style of the first half of the fifteenth century, under Charles VII, was called ‘flamboyant’, because the carved tracery looked like flames.
RENAISSANCE (1500-1650)
Renaissance—rebirth—is a term used to cover the wide changes that occurred in medieval Europe during the fifteenth century, when the pace of life began to grow quicker. (The invention of printing about 1440 was one expression of this revival of energy.) Medieval Europe had for some time been undergoing changes—the oppressive power of the Church had
Two French Gothic panels
already been questioned, for instance. But it was in the middle of the century that the changes became obvious and manifested themselves in many sides of life.
The ideals of the Holy Roman Empire and the medieval church had become too narrow for the general enlargement of life that was gradually taking place. New ambitions were form-
Renaissance Carved Details
Figure
Palm
Acanthus leaf    Table support (griffin and Corinthian column)
ing, and there was an increased self-confidence in people. The
study of ancient Greek and Roman authors provided a more
sympathetic background of ideas than the teachings of the
churchmen. The new spirit showed itself in expanding activity,
and in a growing dissatisfaction with absolute monarchy, feudal restrictions and the impositions of the Church.
People were trying to free themselves from the influence that
Renaissance Carved Details
Cartridge
Rose of acanthus leaves
Ribbon
the Church exercised over all the activities of life, and their
Gothic furniture, looking like small pieces of church, was a
constant reminder of ecclesiastical domination. Furniture-
makers sought to create a new style. The appearance of the new
furniture was suggested by surviving fragments of Greek and Roman architecture. Furniture-makers were accustomed to modelling their work on architectural ideas, but the supply of Greek and Roman examples was limited—in France more so than in Italy. They therefore went on constructing their furniture in the conventional Gothic way, superimposing on the Gothic framework, however, Roman arches, Greek pilasters, and acanthus leaves. They combined the three Greek orders of architecture, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (as the Romans had done), and from the combination developed their own style. The rarity of the examples of genuine classical architecture, and the complete lack of examples of classical furniture, left the Renaissance designers free to invent for themselves—which they did energetically and profusely.
Early Renaissance furniture, of the time of Louis XII, was still made principally of oak; for the method used in its construction was the same as that used for Gothic furniture, and oak was the wood best suited to this method. But the carved motifs of the Renaissance—the acanthus leaves, the curious images called ‘grotesques’, the figures out of classical legends—required a smoother workmanship than is easily possible in oak; and so walnut became popular, being closer-grained, as the style developed.
In the first half of the sixteenth century, Francis I started a school of arts and crafts at Fontainebleau. He imported Italian artists, architects, designers, and craftsmen and installed them there, to train the Frenchmen. The school of Fontainebleau was a great commercial success; it was through its productions that Paris first acquired renown as an artistic centre. But Fontainebleau had a disastrous influence on the development of French furniture styles. It was as if the king had said: ‘Take these foreigners as your masters and try to surpass them. Found a great French school of design, that will easily triumph over all foreign competition.’ As a result, French designers grew over-fastidious in matters of style; and in all French furniture since Fontainebleau there has been more thought for stylishness of effect than for genuine beauty of design.
The masters of Fontainebleau published engravings of build-ings, and furniture designers everywhere became more accurate in their use of classical models. The later Renaissance furniture, of the second half of the sixteenth century, in the reign of Henri II, shows the influence of these engravings. Furniture was made in imitation of classical buildings. Cupboards, for instance, were usually surmounted by a classical pediment, and tables were held up by Ionic or Corinthian columns. This does not mean that there was yet any change in the method of structure. The joiners still made the furniture; and, although it was more elaborate, the joints were still of the same type, except that they were now sometimes glued.
During the second half of the sixteenth century, life in France became less disturbed than it had been during the Middle Ages. There were frequent wars and fights between lords, but a more stable domestic life was possible. The kind of furniture we use today began to be made in this period. Medieval tables, apart from a few examples in monasteries, were composed of boards laid on trestles : tables of the second half of the sixteenth century are permanent tables. At this time chairs with arms were first made, and cabinets, and cupboards composed of two parts, one placed on top of the other—called armoires a deux corps. The cabinet was a small cupboard with two doors behind which were rows of very small drawers. Cabinets were originally placed on small tables, but later they often formed the top half of an armoire d deux corps. They were used to hide away important papers and precious objects, and were highly valued.
The furniture made in the first half of the seventeenth century, in the reign of Louis XIII, was the last furniture made by joiners. During this period the Renaissance style grew stale. Independence was not encouraged by the school of Fontainebleau, and so the designers crowded more and more classical detail into their work. The furniture was overcharged with carving—not a square centimetre was allowed to remain undecorated. The mouldings became heavier and heavier and the reliefs higher and higher, till the underlying structure was almost entirely hidden.
It was at this time that ebony was reintroduced into Europe.
People were beginning to travel more: ships brought back cargoes of unfamiliar materials—from Africa, and from Madagascar, cargoes of ebony. At first ebony was very rare, and was used only for the most precious pieces of furniture—the cabinets. For the use of ebony a new technique was developed, requiring a special class of woodworker : cabinet-makers. The chief cabinet-maker to Louis XIII, Laurent Stabre, was described as a ‘joiner and carpenter in ebony’. This title was later shortened to jbiniste, the name by which cabinet-makers are still known in France today.
The technique of veneering used with ebony resulted in a completely new technique of decoration: inlay and marquetry. Marquetry designs can be fairly simple geometrical patterns, but usually the designs have been very complicated—sometimes whole pictures carried out in woods of various colours, or other materials. The marquetry cabinets of the middle of the seventeenth century were extremely elaborate. Their form was necessarily simple, for the technique of veneering a curved surface had not yet been invented; but every precious material obtainable, except precious stones, was introduced into marquetry. Some of the materials employed were ebony, ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl, copper, brass, silver, and tortoise-shell.
Another change in furniture-making in the first half of the seventeenth century was the wider use of turning. In Gothic furniture there was very little turning, apart from turned chairs, and early Renaissance furniture differed from it only in the detail of carved motifs. All this furniture was based on Gothic architecture, which, with its carved mouldings and clustered columns, did not provide models for turnery. Later Renaissance furniture embodied more of the elements of classical architecture than the earlier. The round columns of Greek buildings suggested designs in which turnery could be used; and the veneered furniture, free from carving, increased the opportunities for turning. Table legs, the legs and stretchers of chairs, and legs for cupboards, were all turned. The French turners got some of their ideas from the turners of the Low Countries, where turning was highly developed.
French furniture of the first half of the seventeenth century shows the boredom of its makers with the Renaissance style, and their interest in purely technical problems. But they were not sufficiently sure of the new techniques to use them to create a new style. This was left to the designers of a later period.
BAROQUE (1650-1750)
The French designers had acquired the habit of working to dictation from a higher authority. Louis XIV was the authori-
Louis XIV Carved Details
Acanthus leaf    Shell
tative patron of furniture-makers of this period, and he had, unfortunately, very dull tastes. He was determined to make France great, and considered that greatness and magnificent furniture went together. He therefore demanded magnificence from his designers. But Louis XIV furniture is remarkable for its magnificence alone. The personal influence of Louis XIV on the style of his time was stronger than the influence of any other important person on the style of his period. In 1662 Louis XIV founded the Manufacture Royale des Meubles de la Couronne at the Gobelins, later to be famous only as a tapestry factory. Here were made all the furniture and furnishings of the royal apartments at Versailles. These were first occupied in 1682.
When a country tries to become a leading nation, it tends to regard itself as capable of every kind of excellence. This attitude lessens the interest in the achievements of other peoples. In the period of Louis XIV, French designers did not look to the monuments of ancient Greece for inspiration, as their predecessors had done: they looked to Louis XIV. The motifs that had been imported during the previous century were regarded as national property; furniture-makers went on carving, and representing in their marquetry designs, the acanthus leaves and Cupid’s heads of Renaissance furniture, but they felt themselves thoroughly French in this. They carved the Renaissance motifs in a more elaborate way, as may be seen by compa -ing the Louis XIV acanthus leaf on page 129 with the Renaissance acanthus leaf previously illustrated. But in the larger details of their furniture they altogether abandoned Greek forms. Everything that was not veneered with precious materials or made of solid silver was covered with gilt, for grandeur.
All the accessory furnishings at Versailles were as lavish as the furniture itself. Claude de Villiers and his sons, Alexis Loir, Pierre Germain, Dutel and Ballin made stands for candlesticks, orange baskets, vases, chandeliers—all out of solid silver, decorated with bas-reliefs of the tasks of Hercules, the four seasons, and other mythological or symbolic themes. Louis sent these pieces to the mint in 1689, to help pay for the army, so they lasted only seven years.
All Louis XIV furniture is strictly symmetrical in form and in decorative detail. In early Louis XIV furniture straight lines predominated, and the effect was stiff and formal. For decoration, elaborately carved and symmetrically grouped trophies of ancient weapons were often used, in honour of Louis’s martial exploits. Chairs were upholstered in a variety of expensive fabrics—velvets, brocades, brocatelles, silks, satins, and damasks, embroidered fabrics and tapestries, and fabrics woven with metal threads. Beds were so covered up with fabrics that there was little or no woodwork to be seen, and so enormous that they were nearly all destroyed when the taste for smaller beds came in. There were thirty-three parts to the textile covering of a State bed; groups of ostrich and heron feathers surmounted the corner posts. Moliere had an Imperial bed, with an azure dome and eagle feet of green bronze.
The carved and gilded furniture—chairs, marble-topped tables with gilded supports, and day-beds (chaises-longues)—was all mixed up with the veneered furniture. This was even more splendid that the late Louis XIII veneered furniture; in it were employed many other woods besides ebony, to give more varied colour effects to the marquetry. Veneered furniture was frequently ornamented a l’or moulu: that is to say, with mounts of bronze, moulded and chiselled and then gilded. Charles Andre Boulle, who was lodged by the king in the Louvre, made much of this veneered furniture; his four sons carried on the work after him.
In the later Louis XIV furniture slightly curved lines were introduced, and fewer martial themes were used in decoration. Louis was now spending more of his time in the boudoir: the straight lines and trophies of arms did not suit the softened background. The chairs and tables had S-shaped or `cabriole’ legs, sometimes ending in doe’s feet.
Many pieces of furniture that we still use were invented during the reign of Louis XIV, such as bookcases, commodes, sideboards, card-tables, bureaux, sofas and comfortable upholstered arm-chairs. A house furnished in the style of Louis XIV would seem to us very magnificent, but we should find there types of furniture corresponding to most of those in use today.
It was during the reign of Louis XIV that the split between French Court furniture, the furniture of Parisian society, and the bourgeois furniture of the provinces first became important. From Louis XIV onwards there were two distinct sets of styles in France, the Court styles and the group of styles known as French Provincial. The French Provincial styles were generally derived from somewhat out-of-date Court styles. Their decoration, however, was much more sober. During the reign of Louis XIV the Provincial furniture was mostly of natural wood, oak or walnut; it was based on Louis XIII furniture, with a few of the innovations of the Louis XIV style. There are great differences in the styles of the various provinces, those in the south showing Italian and Spanish influence, and those in the north the influence of the Low Countries. But we shall not stop to examine these French Provincial styles, since the Court styles are more expressive of the typical French attitude towards style. Yet it should be remembered that by far the best French furniture—the most domestic and personal in character—is French Provincial furniture.

Desks, Bureaux, Bookcases and Cabinets
Table•desks—desks on stands—the fall-front scrutoire—development of the bureau—secret drawers—knee-hole and partners’ desks –escritoires and military chests—boudoir desks and the “bonheur du jour”-19th-century davenports—Samuel Pepys and the first bookcases—the bureau bookcase and origins of the china cabinet—wall shelves and small standing bookcases.
Even in the 16th century life must have been starting to become a little complicated for the average individual. For the professional man and even for the farmer there were records to be kept and letters written and it was probably due to these facts that by the closing years of Elizabeth’s reign small table-desks began to appear in many households. The steward and the merchant would have to employ a counter and chests as well but for the average man the table-desk was sufficient.
These small antique boxes, almost invariably constructed in oak, were very personal belongings and during the Stuart and Restoration periods it was the custom for the owner to have his name and some commemorative date carved upon the front. Although these table-desks vary in size from the rarer 3 feet in width to the more common 20 inches, they nearly all have the same basic construction. A box shape with a gently sloping lid, hinged with wrought-iron butterfly hinges, contains a small compartment of three drawers. A hasp lock was a normal addition.
These little desks are sometimes mistakenly referred to as bible boxes, as mentioned in Chapter 3. I think it was not unlikely that they contained the Bible in some homes, but there would have been little room left for documents accounts and valuables. I have a table-desk which belonged to a George Lowe who had his name and the date 1666, the year of the Great Fire of London, carved on the front. In it I keep a large bible which has been in my wife’s family since the 17th century. The bible has the date 1668 imprinted with the dedication on the cover and it is an interesting coincidence that bible and desk should be so close together in time.
For anyone requiring an antique desk, it is possible to buy a table-desk for under £10 and placed on a small tavern type table with a drawer in the front they make an excellent substitute for the larger and far more expensive bureau. As a matter of fact, it was rather in this way that the bureau developed. During the latter years of the 17th century two types of desk were in evidence. There was the desk on a stand, which was a development of the table-desk, and a much larger and important piece of furniture called the secretary or scrutoire.
The desk on a stand marked an elementary but noteworthy stage in desk development. Hitherto it had been difficult to gain access to the contents of a desk when the desk lid was already covered with letters and documents. Accordingly, the hinges were changed over to the lower edge of the lid which now opened outwards and was in future referred to as the desk-fall. The fall was supported in the open position by pull-out battens called lopers and in some early stands it was the practice to incorporate two small gate-legs which could be swung out to support the fall instead of using lopers. The fitted interior of small drawers and added pigeon-holes was now much more accessible and it became possible to enlarge the number of drawers with the corresponding increase in the size of the desk.
The scrutoire was a much bigger item than the desk on a stand, being frequently over 5 feet in height. It consisted of a flat-fronted rectangular cabinet mounted on either a stand or a chest of drawers. The whole front of the scrutoire folded outwards and was supported by chains or metal stays. It offered a vastly bigger working area than the desk lid and contained many more drawers and compartments for holding documents and ledgers. Although used in the larger establishments with their corresponding need for more administrative storage space, the scrutoire enjoyed only a short existence and by 1700 was more or less obsolete. Strangely enough it returned to favour about 100 years later in a smaller and more compact form. It was produced in France during the post-Revolution Empire period and re-introduced into this country as the secr&aire a abattant or fall-front desk.
What is rather interesting now is that the furniture designers of the Queen Anne period took the better features of the desk on a stand and the scrutoire and incorporated them in a new form of desk which became known as a bureau. The early bureaux were made in two separate parts, the upper desk section being mounted on a base consisting of a chest of drawers. The sections were provided with carrying handles at the sides so that when being moved each part could be carried separately.
The fall was no longer supported by stays or gate-legs but by lopers. These were almost square in section in the earlier bureaux but by the middle of the 18th century it was found that lopers of greater depth were less likely to sag. Later desks have two small drawers instead of lopers which are pulled out to support the fall when in use. Another characteristic of early 18th-century bureaux was the well or space below the interior pigeon-hole compartment. The well was covered by a sliding panel and was only accessible when the fall was in the open position.
Being rather difficult to get at when the open fall was covered with documents its use was abandoned and it had disappeared from the design of most bureaux by 1750.
The charm of many early desks is enhanced by the Georgian love of secret drawers. It is always the fond dream of the antique furniture collector that one day he or she will buy a bureau and, during that first exciting examination when the new piece has been delivered to the house, a hitherto undiscovered secret drawer will be found. Alas! I have never had the luck although a friend once bought a small wooden casket which proved to have a secret drawer and when this was opened after much patient searching for the secret locking device it was found to contain a gold brooch which had lain hidden for nearly 200 years. The remains of a quill pen, jammed in the back of the well, has been the only personal relic of a previous owner which I have ever found in an old desk.
On the whole, secret drawers were seldom as ingeniously secretive as one could have wished. They follow a certain set pattern of variations; the document slides behind the half pillars on the front of the interior compartment; a false bottom to one of the small drawers; a shallow drawer concealed behind part of the shaped border above the pigeon-holes; the drawer behind a drawer which pulls out on a long handle like a church collecting box. I think the best one I have ever come across was the secret drawer which had a false bottom, a sort of double-bluff. I only hope that the designer never felt the vexation of having it burgled.
Large knee-hole desks with flat tops were made about the middle of the 18th century. Some, being very large and double sided, were known as partners’ desks. They were so designed that two people could work as they sat facing one another. A smaller version of the knee-hole desk appeared during the early Georgian period and is very much sought after today. One in walnut and in good condition might cost anything up to £200. There is some doubt, however, as to whether these smaller kneehole desks were actually made to serve as desks or were really designed as small dressing tables. Further reference will be made to this point in the following chapter.
Another type of desk which was made during the later Georgian period was the secretaire. This has all the appearance of being just a chest of drawers but it is recognisable from the outside when it is recalled that the drawers in an ordinary chest become progressively deeper as they near the floor. The deepest drawer of an escritoire is located at the top and is in fact the fall of a desk. When the top section of the chest is pulled out, pressure on catches at either side of the front will allow the false drawer front to fold outwards when it is normally supported by brass stays. The secretaire has the usual fitted interior of small drawers and pigeon-holes and was a favourite form of writing desk until well into the 19th century. The two stage military chest referred to in Chapter 3 sometimes has an escritoire drawer fitted into the upper part.
A number of small desks, intended specifically for the use of ladies, were designed by Sheraton and his contemporaries. They were lightly made and were referred to as boudoir desks or writing tables. Among them was a revival of the smaller desk on a stand which was called a cylinder top desk. Instead of the usual desk-fall it had a curved top which was made to slide backwards to reveal the fitted interior.
Another version was adapted from a French design and was known as a bonheur du jour. This is a title for which there is no suitable English equivalent; literally it means “the happiness of the day”. As letter writing was one of the chief relaxations of ladies of the more leisured classes in the later 18th century perhaps “bonheur du jour” means just what the name implies.
A little desk known as a davenport was very popular among the Victorians until about 1860. It was supposed to have been first made by Gillows of Lancaster to the design of a Captain Davenport. Early examples were made in mahogany and were rectangular in shape, the desk-top being constructed to slide forward over the knees of the user when required. After 1830 the davenport was usually made in walnut and the desk top was designed to overhang permanently, being supported by carved legs or brackets. Until recently, davenports could be purchased for a few pounds and may still be acquired very reasonably.
Bookshelves have been in use ever since books have been collected into libraries but it was not until the Restoration that the bookcase with glazed doors appeared in this country. Credit for the design is given to the great diarist, Samuel Pepys who was an ardent book-lover. In the Pepys library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, are the original bookcases which Pepys had made for his own use and which he bequeathed with his books to his old university.
At approximately the same time as features of the desk
on a stand and the scrutoire were combined to produce
the bureau, a bookcase was superimposed on some exam-
ples to form the bureau bookcase. It was first made about
1700 and is still being produced in a variety of forms.
Some early bureau bookcases had doors fitted with
mirrors instead of plain glass. These were fashionable
during the Queen Anne period and are very rare today.
Some small walnut bureaux with a single mirrored door
were made to fit between the long sash windows of the
early 18th-century drawing rooms and their value at pre-
sent might be £700 or £800 each. An interesting feature
of the bureaux with mirrors in the doors were the little candlestick slides fitted into the rail just under the doors and above the desk proper. When lighted candles were placed upon them at night the illumination was doubled by the reflected light from the mirrors.
Plain glass doors through which the gilded leather binding of the books could be seen superseded the mirrored doors by 1720. The glazed variety were known as astragal doors from the beading or astragals which formed the framework for the glass. There is a story that all genuine old bookcases have thirteen glazed sections in each door. This would appear to be yet another legend without foundation because I have not infrequently seen genuine old doors with fifteen astragal panels.
Another of the many pieces of furniture which originated during the Restoration was the china cabinet. Collecting the attractive new porcelain from the far east with its translucent body and fine decoration became very popular in London and the larger sea-port towns. To preserve their fragile specimens, lacquered cabinets from China were imported and mounted on heavily carved wooden stands of British manufacture. These were sometimes coated with silver or gilding and were quite a decorative feature of Restoration and William and Mary period furnishing. The fact that the contents of the lacquered cabinets were not visible probably brought about their replacement by the glazed china cabinets of the Queen Anne period. These were usually mounted on a lower stand furnished with the cabriole legs of the times.
For some reason, perhaps because an 18th-century bookcase may be too overpowering in the 20th-century house, it has become the practice in recent years to separate bureaux from their bookcases. The result is that the latter may often be obtained for under £10 and mounted on a small stand or side table they make very attractive china cabinets.
Sets of wall shelves were in use during the 16th and 17th centuries but apart from small racks for holding pewter spoons, few have survived. Small fitments of wall shelves were reintroduced about the middle of the Georgian period. Normally, they consisted of two or three shelves with two small drawers beneath and those of the later Chippendale school had delicately fretted sides. Being very lightly made they could be used only for small books but in all probability they were designed to display ornaments. The later types were of thinly cut mahogany with pleasantly shaped sides and a little boxwood stringing inlaid along the edges of the drawers.
The late Georgian period saw the production of standing bookshelves or bookcases without doors, many made to the designs of Hepplewhite and Sheraton. They were comparatively small, being only about 3 feet in height and width and, as well as being made in mahogany, quite a number were constructed in pine. These were then painted either white or black with gilding and though not particularly common can sometimes be bought quite cheaply at house sales.

FRENCH FURNITURE
Louis XIV, 1643-1715
T is desirable for the man interested in English furniture
to have at least a working knowledge of the French styles,
if for no other reason than that of appreciating their influence on English work seventeenth century english stoneware . To understand them thoroughly is a study equally as wide and intricate as that of English furniture (if not more so) and to do justice to the subject would call for a separate volume as large as the present one antique porcelain tea pot made in france . In these few pages one can hope to do little more than point out the salient features 19th century floral paintings .
Historically speaking the subject goes back farther than our own, for the continental craftsmen were far more advanced than the English, and have left more and better examples of their work to posterity antique table 8 legs with brass feet . For the present purpose, however, the reigns of the three Louis, XIV, XV, and XVI are all that we are concerned with, for when speaking of French furniture it is the work produced during the period of these monarchs that one invariably calls to mind antique blue and white earthenware jug with zigzag pattern .
Louis XIV came to the throne in 1643, a time when the French Renaissance had lost much of its Italian origin and had developed a strong individual character lenci wall masks . Whatever his merits or demerits as a king may have been, the world of art certainly owes much to him for the encouragement he gave to all arts and crafts antique french tier table . He was a man of most extravagant tastes, and, living in a time when France was one of the strongest and wealthiest of European Powers, he was able to give full play to his fancies antique drop-leaf end tables . His court was probably the most magnificent that Europe has ever known, and the daily extravagant ceremonial called for a setting for which nothing but the costliest and richest would do napoleonic campaign chairs . Fortunately, this great impetus to fine work came at a time when men of considerable talent were seeking expression, and it required only this talent on the one hand and the wealth and encouragement on the other to produce a style which (in its own particular way) has never been excelled theodore haviland 1958 pattern .
Period of Louis XIV
Of the capable craftsmen whose names are outstanding probably the greatest was Andr6 Charles Boulle who was born in 1642 and died in 1732 dresser accessories . He had experimented with a form of marquetry which had originated in Italy, and when the great tide of building and furnishing came he took it at its flood, and developed this marquetry into a distinctive kind which for sheer exquisite workmanship, coupled with fine design, stands unique antique card table with one flap . It is often termed ” Buhl,” and was carried out in brass or copper, and tortoiseshell, ebony, and horn drop leaf table wall semi circle .
A brief explanation of how marquetry was produced was given in Chapter V chamber pot in cabinet . Two sheets of dissimilar materials were fixed together temporarily and the design cut through both with a fine saw gillows three hinge . The two sheets were then separated and the parts interchanged so that in the one there would be a design of, say, brass on a background of tortoiseshell, and in the other the exact reverse antique “la granja” glass . Thus it was possible to produce two cabinets of precisely the same outline and design, but the one the reverse of the other in the material of the design and background designer extending round dining tables in kent . The one was the (4 counter ” of the other, hence the terms ” Buhl ” and if counter black lacquer dining chairs .”
A typical Boulle cabinet is shown in Fig silver fish slice . 165, in which this rich marquetry work is an outstanding feature figural silver antique candlesticks . In addition to the scrolling design of the inlay itself the whole of the brasswork is richly engraved, producing an effect which almost approaches the work of the jeweller rather than that of the cabinet maker antique english dressing table . A point to note is that wood carving is almost entirely absent, the decorative effect, apart from the marquetry, being obtained entirely with rich brass mounts antique mirror back sideboard 1920’s . Some of the leading artist-craftsmen of the time were engaged in the production of these mounts wooden arm chair pedestal castor antique oak .
It was for the decoration and furnishing of the Palace of Versailles that the finest and richest work was produced, and the Palace, even as it stands to-day after the ravages of the Revolution, leaves one gasping at its sheer extravagant splendour origins and development of arts . One has to remember that the furniture maker then was regarded as an artist, and certainly the results seem to justify such a status edgard brandt . It is with something like a shock that one realises that the cabinet in Fig antique table round drop leaf claw foot . 165 was produced at the same time as the simple early walnut furniture in England art nouveau . It is true that a colossal amount of money was spent on the production of such pieces, but it has to be admitted that the French cabinet makers were far in advance of our own staffordshire figures of royalty . It is points like this that help one to realise why it was that a revolution of ideas took place when Charles II came to reign in England after years of exile spent in France georgian telescopic silver candlestick .
The famous Gobelins factory for the production of tapestry was purchased by Louis XIV, and cabinet-making workshops were established in it art deco upholstery . Charles Le Brun became the director, and the world of art owes a great deal to his energetic leadership perpetual calendar 18th century . :Much of the finest work at Versailles was produced at the factory carlo bugatti furniture antiques .
In general form the surfaces of cabinets were flat—at any rate early in the period west indies antique paintings . This is mentioned in particular because we shall see that in the next phase curved surfaces were introduced everywhere art nouveau origins . The general decoration took the form of Boulle marquetry of brass or copper on a background of ebony or tortoiseshell, the design consisting of elaborate scroll work richly chased, allegorical figures, fruit and floral motifs, swags of husks, and acanthus leafage, the whole in a somewhat free interpretation of the Renaissance daniel quare 1674 tortoiseshell case pocket watches . Bold ormolu mounts heavily gilded were fitted, these taking the form of lion masks, scrolled consoles, acanthus scrolls, human masks, and deep nullings royal sheffield silver . Both straight and curved legs were used, the last named becoming more popular towards the end of the period in harmony with the tendency towards shaped work generally william kent console table .
COMMODE IN KINGWOOD WITH INLAYS queen ann gate leg table .
Laois XV antique prohibition table example .
This cabinet, made for the King’s chamber at Versailles, is a design of SIodtz and was made by Antoine Robert
Gaudreau In 1738 antique fluted gateleg table legs . The gilt bronze mounts were by Jacques Caffiere booths pearlware marks .
FRENCH FURNITURE
Louis XV, 1715-1774
T0 appreciate the underlying causes of the changes in the type of furniture produced in Louis XV’s reign
it is necessary to know something of the historical events of the period 18th century forks . Louis XIV had died in 1715 when his heir «as but five years old, and it became necessary to appoint a regent antique decorative motif . The Duke of Orleans took the office, and he was virtually monarch until his death in 1723 directoire consulat empire . There was thus a break in the extravagant court grandeur which was so essentially a feature of the reign of the late king art deco antique furniture makers . The wild expenditure of the seventy odd years of le Grand i1lonarque, too, had left its mark on the finances of the court and aristocracy antique pouch table . No country, no matter how powerful and prosperous, could continue for an unlimited time to spend money on pure aggrandisement to such an extent, and as a result there were but two alternatives : to live in a quieter way, or to find fresh sources of income mid 17th century foods france . In the event a sort of compromise was effected 17th century french fashion . The aristocracy began to contract marriages with humbler but wealthy classes, bankers, merchants, and so on ; and in place of the grandeur of the great salon so beloved by Louis XIV came the rise of the smaller boudoir photos of antique chambersticks . In fact the two periods are often referred to respectively as the periods of the salon and the boudoir jupe table mechanism .
Its effect on the furniture was that it was in its way equally rich, but was on a smaller scale how much is a claw foot table worth . Then, too, the masculine grandeur gave way to an effeminate prettiness, a change quite in keeping with the general conduct of life emile galle furniture . People began to look for elegance rather than grandeur, and to use ornament purely for its own sake boulle console table with marble tops with elaborate friezes .
We have had occasion to note in earlier chapters in this book that an idea, once it takes root, frequently is carried to extremes, and it thus happened that the tendency to introduce shaped work towards the end of Louis XIV’s reign reached such a height in the succeeding reign that many cabinets were made with scarcely a straight line or a flat surface in them regency antique mahogany dining table styles . This extraordinary use of curves is the keynote of Louis XV furniture when was art deco furniture stated in france . The skill shown in overcoming the difficulties that such work presented is amazing octagonal brass & silver table . One may’ or may not admire this flamboyant phase of French furniture, but no one can but admire the excellence of the workmanship augsburg marquetry table cabinet . The fronts and sides of cabinets, bureaux, and so on were curved in both plan and elevation, and some idea of the difficulty of veneering over such a surface can be obtained by trying to lay a flat sheet of paper around a ball barrel leg oak dining table . Added to this was the fact that the whole was usually elaborately inlaid or given a decorative effect by the use of designs in which the varying, direction of the grain of the wood was made to play a part round rosewood breakfast table .
So far as furniture was concerned the preference for gilded mounts in place of wood carving continued, and the workmanship of these was of an extremely high order table octagon marquetry drawer . One may not care for the effect as a whole—it frequently appears restless and overdone, but regarded individually the work was extremely fine i.i.e. exclusive capodimonte . The love of curves developed to an extraordinary extent, resulting in its fulness in what is known as the Rococo decoration thonet rocking chair . The term comes from two French words meaning rocks and shells, to which the ornament bears a certain resemblance antique porcelain czechoslovakia wall face . It is exemplified in Fig austrian mirrored tables . 166—in which the elaborate scrolls and acanthus leafage can be seen antique collector’s cabinet . The chief exponents of the rococo were Meissonier and Slodtz palissy patterns .
The French version of the cabriole leg reached its zenith during this period side table black hand painted birds and flowers made in italy . It was essentially suited to the general and wide use of shapes antique metal tables with drop leaves . In a limited sense it bore a resemblance to the English version, but it had an entirely different spirit telescopic glass tables . The English leg at its best had a high, well-pronounced knee running abruptly into a square at the top, and terminating at the bottom with one or other varieties of the club or claw and ball foot can antique dressers pair with modern furniture . An example was given in Fig flemish refectory table . 116 at E meissen figures . The French variety was of a more flowing shape steuben stemware deco . There was no square at the top, the shape either flowing naturally into shaped rails at the sides, or continuing with a concave curve upwards antique english dressing table . At the bottom the foot was usually scrolled italian buffet decorations . The cabinet in Fig antique english rhenish ware . 166 shows the typical French shape black lacquer china cabinet .
A great many varieties of woods were used ; mahogany,amboyna, tulipwood, boxwood, rosewood, sycamore, ebony, and amaranth are amongst the commonest antique cabinets coat of arms . Satinwood too was used towards the end of the reign, though this is more usually associated with the following reign of Louis XVI antique console table carved wood . Gilding and lacquering were popular meisen hand painted plates 1920 allegorical . At first the lacquer work was imported from the East, or panels were prepared and sent to China to be lacquered, but later it was imitated in the French factories, though the detail in it was often faulty, western motifs being introduced in a somewhat incongruous manner brislington delftware . A firm of the name of Martin paid special attention to this lacquer work and produced a preparation known as Vernis-Martin towards the middle of the century 1945 mahogany desk . In its final stage this originally Oriental decoration became almost wholly westernised, the decorative artists painting allegorical subjects in natural settings on a lacquered background patent imperial dining table gillows .
Towards the end of the reign a reaction against the elaborate Rococo work set in, and there came a revival of the classical spirit which was the keynote of the work in the Following reign canterbury music stand .
FRENCH FURNITURE
Louts XVI, 1774–1793
THE financial difficulties of the reign of Louis XV have already been noted reproduction 18th century tea bowl . They still existed, in fact
were increased, when the ill-starred Louis XVI came to the throne in 1774 hand blown romer glass . The clouds were already gathering for the storm which was to break close on twenty years later antique empire and biedermeier periods 1800 to 1848 . This, combined with the reaction against the Rococo work of the middle of the 18th century, produced a type of furniture in which the shaped work was largely, if not wholly, eliminated daniel quare 1674 tortoiseshell case pocket watches . Design became altogether more refined and returned again to the classical spirit, prompted largely by the excavations of Herculaneum which had been begun seriously in the middle of the century table paw feet antique .
Then again the Queen of Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, favoured simple country life ; the elaboration of the preceding reign made no appeal to her, and although the movement towards simpler lines began before she was Queen, her influence undoubtedly encouraged the new feeling mirrors antique british chevron . It should be realised, however, that the term ” simple ” is used relatively antique neoclassical . Compared with the English, French cabinet work of Louis XVI was vastly more ornate hunt roskell silver auction . French furniture always was, It was just the natural national expression, but when it is compared with the full shaped work of the preceding reign the simpler and more refined feeling is apparent small dressing table cupboard .
The chief characteristics of Louis XVI are the use of straight lines and flat surfaces with a delicate and refined treatment of the detail floral ornaments art nouveau . Mouldings are small and the carving light and delicate old cantagalli pottery . Gilded mounts are widely used (they were still largely preferred to wood carving) and the quality is of a very high order reverse serpentine sideboard . The subjects take the form of rural, natural, and conventional objects ; scythes, spades, lutes, pipes, birds, cupids, torches, ribbons, swags of husks, flowers, medallions, and acanthus scrolls ormolou decoration . The last named are altogether less flamboyant than the ornament of Louis XV
time antique card table flaps . The woods used were the same as those of the previous reign with an increasing popularity for satinwood 18th century wine cooler brass feet . Lacquer work was also still widely used, and was often bounded by gilded mouldings antique mahogany drop leaf work table .
With the disappearance of the shaped work the cabriole leg lost much of its popularity, especially for cabinets and commodes, though it still was used for small bureaux and console tables in a lighter form cantagalli pottery . The light turned and square tapered leg was used largely, the last named often being recessed on its faces and decorated with gilded mounts fixed in the recessed panels 1930s antique square table . The chief designers were Riesener, Gouthiere, and Roentgen slant front desk antique .
All design is largely a matter of personal taste, but it is usually conceded that the work of Louis XVI shows French design and workmanship at its best 17th century oak side table . The furniture of Louis XIV had a certain grandeur tending to heaviness at its worst, this developing into an overdone elaboration in the following reign antique bombe commodes for sale . In the last of the three reigns there was a reaction against the worst features, and the result shows a welcome restraint scotish chest of drawers .
Readers wishing to study French furniture at first hand should examine the fine specimens at the Wallace collection, and the Jones bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington oak art deco scandinavian furniture . Those who are able to visit France should see the magnificent collection at the Palace of Versailles cheverton machine .
UPHOLSTERED CHAIR WITH BRASS MOUNTS josef maria olbrich furniture . French Empire gustavian chairs pierced splats,fluted legs .
The chair was made in about 1810 column empire style bedside tables . The wings of the beasts are in brass
and are screwed beneath the seat rails provincial furniture number drawers . The feet too are brass, being
socketed to fit over the stub legs antique french saxon china flowers with gold .
FRENCH FURNITURE
EMPIRE
THE period of the French Revolution during which Louis XVI and large numbers of the French aristo-
cracy were executed was scarcely a time in which cabinet making could be expected to flourish antique bedside toilet . Wealthy people went into hiding or fled the country, and there was nobody left to order the fine quality and expensive furniture one usually associates with France of the second half of the eighteenth century gateleg table antique . In fact, some of the famous ebenistes themselves were prosecuted for their close connection with the royalty and aristocracy george serving table fluted . It was not until conditions had settled down under the forceful government of Napoleon that any revival of the making of fine furniture was possible makers of silver table ware in late 1800’s .
It was then that was evolved the style which has become known as Empire chair 18th queen rococo revival . If Louis XIV furniture be characterised as solid magnificent grandeur, Louis XV as flamboyant elegance, all shapes and curves, Louis XVI as delicate refinement, sometimes verging on the effeminate, then the Empire can be reckoned as stately and dignified with a strong influence of the Greek, Roman, and Egyptian dutch silver octagon trinket box . Compared with the elegant style preceding it, Empire furniture is considerably more restrained, mostly with straight lines, usually in mahogany, and invariably mounted with brass or gilt ornaments meissen/cabinet plate/19th century . These ornaments took the form of the Greek honeysuckle and vases, laurel wreaths, caryatid figures, martial helmets, torches, winged animals, and so on english furniture toilet chest .
Presumably the style was a tribute to the leadership of Napoleon, the Emperor who had marched through Europe and beyond antique tray table white . It scarcely outlasted his final downfall in 184, though its influence continued to be felt in this country during the Regency period antique enamel top table .
UPHOLSTERED CHAIR WITH BRASS MOUNTS new england antique dining tables .
‘The chair was made in about 1810 1920s draw leaf dining set turned legs . The wings of the beasts are in brass
and are screwed beneath the seat rails 3 leaf antique extending dining table . The feet too are brass, being
socketed to fit over the stub legs scandinavian octagon dining table .

EARLY 19TH CENTURY REGENCY BRITAIN FURNITURE

THE REGENCY WAS a clearly defined
period in British history From 1811 to 1820, the Prince of Wales, who later became George IV, ruled instead of his father, who was suffering from porphyria – a form of madness. However, as a furniture style, Regency has come to embrace a wider time frame, from the 1790s to the third decade of the 19th century.
Reflecting the exuberant tastes of the Regent himself, the period begins with his commission of the Neoclassical architect Henry Holland for his London home, Carlton House, in the 1780s, and concludes with the exotic, Oriental confection that is John Nash’s
Brighton Pavilion, remodelled for the Prince of Wales between 1815 and 1823. George, the Prince Regent, came to dominate taste in the early 19th century. He and his circle drew on a diverse group of talented architects and artisans, often trained in France, many of whom had worked on Carlton House. These included the architect, Charles Heathcote Tatham, the decorators and cabinet-makers, Morel and Hughes, and the clock-maker, Benjamin Vulliamy.
FURNITURE STYLE
Regency furniture is often symmetrical with clean, rectilinear lines. As such, it was inspired by French Empire furniture and the simple late 18th-century furniture designs of Thomas Sheraton. Large surfaces were often veneered in highly figured rosewood and then decorated with gilt-brass mounts of ancient motifs, such as rosettes, paterae, laurels, and anthemia. The Liverpool cabinet-
maker George Bullock is best known for his use of patterned surfaces; he frequently balanced English timbers, especially oak, with a riot of border patterns featuring stylized flower-heads, lotus leaves, and dot motifs.
The strict Neoclassical taste found its most archaeological expression in the designs of Thomas Hope, which he published in 1807. Not only had he plundered ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome for decorative ideas, but he also attempted to recreate ancient furniture and interiors. Probably the most
typical furniture of this type is the rounded klismos chair – first known to have been produced in ancient Greece
– which has back stiles that rise from outswept sabre legs to support an almost semi-circular back.
During this period, a wide variety of side cabinets of diverse outlines came to dominate the wall space in drawing rooms, replacing the use of commodes. In the dining room, a similar role was performed by the popular sideboard and chiffonier.
ECLECTICISM
It would be a mistake, however, to see the Regency as simply a curvaceous and light Neoclassical style. It was characterized by endless variety, a freedom of forms, and an eclectic
ornamental vocabulary. George Smith, who published a pattern book the year after Hope, reinterpreted his cold, academic designs by applying Neoclassical motifs to French Empire models that also included Gothic-and Chinese-inspired furniture. Indeed, exotic forms and materials became the hallmark of Regency taste. Smith popularized Hope’s designs in his pattern book, introducing them to a wider public.
Smith inspired impressive-looking furniture, with boldly carved leopard’s masks or large lion’s-paw feet, which anticipated the slightly heavier furniture of the 1820s and 30s.

The front rail and highly scrolled ends are inlaid with trailing foliage and flowers, terminating in floral paterae.
The seat rail is inlaid with a trailing brass foliate motif.
The design of the chaise longue is influenced by the contemporary French form, the meridjenne - a type of sofa with scrolled ends, one higher than the other.
Brass inlay detail
CHAISE LONGUE
This elegant Regency chaise longue is made of rosewood and is profusely inlaid throughout with brass inlay in a foliate design. The frame has a sweeping back rail which is centred with a scrolled hand grip, and has highly decorative
scrolled end supports. The generously padded seat and arms are supported on a rectilinear front rail decorated with a foliate motif. The piece stands on outswept sabre legs which terminate in lion’s-paw feet on casters.
Sabre legs terminate in lion’s paw feet and casters.
SMALL CENTRE TABLE
The surface of this tilt-top table has a painted scene within a laburnum veneer border. It is supported on a rosewood-veneered stem, on a base with scrolled, ribbed feet on brass casters. Early 19th century
MAHOGANY STOOL
This Regency mahogany stool has a gently shaped rectangular seat with scrolled ends and light carving on the surface. It is supported on an X-frame base with simple, carved decoration and stretchers. c.1810.
This mahogany writing table has a three-quarter brass gallery and a central, pull-out insert. There are six drawers behind a lift-up flap, two drawers on either side, and two in the frieze, supported on slender, turned legs. c.1800.
LIBRARY TABLE
The rectangular top of this rosewood library table is inlaid with a Greek-key border in satinwood and ebony. The frieze has a central pierced ormolu palmette and two drawers. The bowed legs are headed by gilt lion’s heads and
terminate in lion’s-paw feet, joined by a shaped stretcher. c.1810.