Posts Tagged ‘furniture design’

MODERNISM
ITALY
MODERNISM IN ARCHITECTURE and
furniture design first emerged in Italy in 1926 under the banner o I Razionalismo, or Rationalism. Most prominent among the Rationalists, all of whom espoused a functional, pared-down approach to architecture and design, was Gruppo 7, a collective that included Luigi Figini, Gino Pollini, and Giuseppe Terragni.
Mussolini’s government, whose rise to power coincided with the emergence of the Rationalists, initially embraced the nascent design style. Gruppo Ts
advocacy of industrial progress, clean living, and moral reform appeared to [it well with the Fascists’ own ideals. Indeed, such was the relationship between the Rationalists and the Fascists that in 1934 Giuseppe Terragni completed both the building and the fittings for the Fascist headquarters in Como, near Milan. Needless to say, the architecture was unremittingly stark, with equally uncompromising furniture. Employing primarily tubular steel, Terragni
produced a range of tables and chairs that owed much to Marcel Breuer’s work at the Bauhaus, although the furniture was more expressive in its lines than Breuer’s deliberately
anonymous-looking pieces.
THE USE OF TUBULAR STEEL Italian designers would have seen the tubular-steel designs developed in Germany at the regular Triennial exhibitions, held for the first time in Monza in 1923. Ten years later, the
exhibitions were moved to Milan under the title of International Triennial of Decorative and Modern Industrial Art. The Triennials showcased the latest developments in design from Italy and across Europe. The idea of using tubular steel, which Italian designers first saw in 1930, struck a chord, as Italy was, in the interwar years, suffering a severe wood shortage. Mussolini’s hard-line approach to rule had seen the country fall from favour with more liberal governments across the world, and Italy was suffering under sanctions. As a result, tubular-steel designs by the likes of Terragni, Piero Bottom, and Gabriele Mucchi were developed during these years, although they rarely met with popular success. Designed as prototypes for mass production, many designs of the era were only produced in significant numbers much later.
The Rationalists eventually fell out with the Fascists after Mussolini deemed their approach “too
international”; Mussolini opted to support the Neoclassical style of the Novecento group. But where Hitler hounded all Modernist architects and designers from Germany, Mussolini took a far more lenient view. Indeed, the 1930s and 40s was a time in
which many of Italy’s most celebrated manufacturers and designers got their start. The likes of Cassina and Fontana Arte were not to gain until the 1950s, but they put down roots in
the interwar period. Although the years 1925-45 were not the most distinguished in Italy’s remarkable design history, they certainly paved the way for much of what was to come.
Detail of leather straps
Tubular-steel frame
The lounge chair The Modernist era saw many pieces made for sanitoriums. The lounge chair was a favourite, with versions made that could be easily moved from inside to outside or
transformed from a seat to a day bed.
The chair’s frame is made from laminated beechwood. On each side, the arm and legs are one continuous loop of wood; joined beneath the seat by a cross-stretcher. The seat has a beech frarne with a woven cane seat and back. Designed by Giuseppe Pagano. 1938. H:71crr? (271,m), W.61clo (,?4il?): D:68cm (26,Xin).
TELEPHONE STAND
OCCASIONAL TABLE
The most striking feature of this side, or occasional, table is its thick plate-glass top, which has a bevelled edge. The circular glass table top collects light like a lens, producing a brilliant reflection below. The table top rests on a walnut support from which emerge four splayed legs, that taper sharply towards the bottom. The legs are made of lacquered walnut. Designed by Pietro Chiesa, the table was manufactured by Fontana Arte. c.1950. H:48.25cm
09in): D:66clo (26in).
This occasional-table-cum-telephone-stand was designed by G. Levi Montalcini and Giuseppe Pagano. It has a chrome-plated, tubular-steel frame. Two circular, black-laminate shelves sit at the top of the stand and are cantilevered over the base. 1932, re-issued by Zanotta In 2004. H:80cm OIAW; W.37.5cm (14A17). ZAN
COMACINA DESK
This writing desk has a simple, tubular-steel frame. The rectangular, white-laminate top offers a plain work surface; a storage unit with four drawers is below, to the right. Designed by Piero Bottoni in 1930; this example was re-issued by Zanotta in 2004. H:75cm (291in); W.130crn (511n); D:65cm (251in). ZAN
FOLLIA CHAIR
The cylindrical headrest is strapped to the chair o minimize bulk.
LOUNGE CHAIR
Made from tubular steel and slung fabric, this innovative piece can be used as a chair or a chaise longue, depending on which end it stands (see above). Designed by Battista and Gino Guidici. 1935. F1:98cm (38in); L113cm (451n); W.49crn
WKA
The black-painted, rectilinear wooden seat and back of this Giuseppe Terragni chair are connected by chrome-plated spring supports.
1934, re-issued by Zmoh’t in 2004. 1 I:Wcm (311,in); W.50cm (191in); D:60cm (931,si). ZAN
The armrest padding is kept to a bare minimum so as not to disturb the clean lines of the chair
Tubular steel is used to form the chair’s frame.
Simple, black upholstery covers the mattress on the footrest.
The chair’s seat appears suspended, giving it a sense of weightlessness.
Cushioning on the ottoman is strapped to the tubular steel base, accentuating the contrast of natural and synthetic materials.
GENNI LOUNGE CHAIR
This lounge chair’s seat sits within a tubular-steel frame and is adjustable, having two positions. The upholstered mattress and headrest match the black elbow rests. The footstool echoes the chair’s rectangular frame. It was re-issued by Tecta in 2004. H:82cm (321′irl) (Max); W.41cin (161n); D:109cm (43in). Footstool: f-1:41cirt (161n); W.45cin (171in); D:55cm (211in).

In the first years of the loth century dress
fashions did not change drastically, and
cluster and small pendent earrings
characteristic of the last decade of the 19th century continued to be popular. The few drop earrings produced were of moderate size and in ‘garland’ style, that is, characterized by very delicate garland and fluttering bow motifs, usually mounted with diamonds in millegrain settings. The source of inspiration lay in i 8th-century France, especially decorative and architectural details such as ormolu furniture fittings and cornices and stucco mouldings. Cartier in particular encouraged his designers to wander through the streets of Paris studying and sketching architectural details. Typical of earrings in this style was the pear-shaped drop, with a coloured gemstone or a diamond briolette, mounted as a swing centre within a garland of small, delicate leaf and flower motifs on a ribbon bow surmount. Other fashionable earrings assumed the form of diamond or coloured stone briolettes on fine articulated chains of millegrain-set diamonds.
Before the First World War
The delicacy of these jewels was enhanced by extensive use of platinum, a white, untarnishable precious metal which was heavy, hard to work and difficult to solder but of great structural strength so that only a little of it was required to produce a sturdy mount.
The desire to set diamonds in a mount whose colour did not alter their whiteness had been felt as early as the 18th century, and since then the traditional metal for diamond setting had been silver. The relative softness of silver, though, required a large amount of metal for the mount and had the great disadvantage of staining the skin and clothing. To overcome the problem, 19th-century jewellers devised a new kind of setting consisting of a laminate of silver and gold: silver at the front so as to set off the colour of the stone to best effect, and gold at the back for extra strength and to prevent the silver from tarnishing. Although platinum had been known as early as the 16th century in Colombia, it had not been extensively used in jewellery before the turn of the century because of the difficulties involved in working it, but from then on it became the favourite metal of the jeweller, and earrings set mainly in platinum were produced until the 1940s.
Around 1915 one can discern a change in the design of earrings from the garland
126 type to a form that anticipates features of 192os earrings. They tend to become longer
and their typical form is that of an elongated baton-shaped motif usually set with dia-
monds, supporting a drop, often a pearl or a larger millegrain-set diamond. Of
course the majority of these earrings continue to possess features typical of earlier
periods: they are entirely white, set with diamonds and pearls, in accordance with the
general preference for monochromatic and pale coloured jewels in vogue since the
late 19th century, and furthermore they continue to display the characteristic delicate
A pair of diamond pendent earrings in the garland style, circa i goo.
millegrain settings and fine foliate details. On the other hand the pronounced elongation and geometrical details foreshadow the designs of the following decade. They also well suited the female silhouette as recently redesigned by the Parisian couturier Paul Poiret, who liberated women from corsets with the introduction of fluid, high-waisted dresses. The emphasis in fashion was on straight, vertical lines which were counterbalanced by long sautoirs and long pendent earrings. An example of earrings where old and new features coexist is a pair of French platinum and diamond pendent earrings. The overall design and the millegrain settings conform to the garland style, while the size and length of the drop, and the geometrical mitre-shaped surmount anticipate earrings of the 1920S. Another interesting example is the elaborate pair of chandelier-design earrings, where the floral and foliate design is typical of the garland style but the size and tassel motifs are already Art Deco in spirit.
It was during these years that the screw fitting to clamp the earring to the lobe, which had first been developed in the last years of the i 9th century, gained popularity. Its advantage over traditional types of fitting was that it avoided the necessity of piercing the lobe, a practice which had begun to be regarded as barbaric. This was symptomatic of the general move towards liberating women from traditional constraints, exemplified in the field of fashion by the rejection of harmful items of clothing such as tightly laced corsets, and in social and political life by the movement to establish votes for women.
Decade by decade: the 1920s
The outbreak of the First World War in 191 ¢ brought a sudden end to the frivolous period of the Belle Epoque. Jewellery production ceased: precious metals and gemstones became scarce; platinum, an important material for the manufacture of nitric acid for explosives and for engine magnetos, disappeared from jewellery workshops; craftsmen turned their skills from jewellery to the armament industry, and women were forced to take up the jobs left vacant by men called to the front. By the end of the war in 1918, the newly emancipated women had adopted an androgynous look: they had shortened their dresses and cut their hair ‘d la garconne’ thus dispensing for the first time in history with what St Paul called their ‘crowning glory.’ Consequently earrings, more than ever, came to play a role of paramount importance by filling the gap between the bob and the shoulders, echoing the simple vertical line of the dress while adding a touch of frivolity and femininity to the new masculine look. During the 192os earrings undoubtedly became the most important form of jewellery, as can be seen in contemporary portraiture, photographs, advertisements, theatre and fashion designs, such as those by Jeanne Lanvin. Furthermore, the great number of surviving 192os earrings indicates both their popularity and copious production.
The common characteristic of all earrings of the early and mid-192os was their very pronounced vertical and geometrical line and the use of enamels and gemstones realized by the combination of precious gemstones such as emeralds, rubies, sapph-

ires and diamonds with semiprecious stones such as onyx, coral, jade, rock crystal,
turquof striking and contrasting colours. These daring new juxtapositions of colours wereoise and lapis lazuli, the latter frequently carved into cylinders, circles, oblong
P. 158 panels and drops. Good examples are the coral and onyx pendent earrings where the
bright red coral drop carved in a floral design is suspended from a long chain of black
onyx baton motifs. The interest in such vivid colours derived from Diaghilev’s Bal-
lets Russes which made such an impact on Paris and London society around 1910:
their bright juxtapositions of colours both in the costumes and stage sets shocked and
Left: a pencil and
gouache theatrical
design by Jeanne
Lanvin, October 1922. Note the long torpedo-shaped pendent
earrings.
Below: a pencil and gouache fashion design by Jeanne Lanvin, March 1924• Note the elongated carved coral torped-shaped pendent
earrings.fascinated audiences and at the same time set the tone for the jewellery and fashion of the following decade.
Besides novel and striking combinations of colour, there were innovative features in the setting and cut of stones. The favourite new style of setting gems was the `pave’, in which the gems paved the whole surface of the mount. This was often achieved by cutting the stones to fit the required shape of the mount and of the decorative pattern. It is clearly visible in the long pendent earrings designed by Boucheron, where emeralds, rubies and sapphires are cut with domed surfaces to fit into the stylized floral design on a diamond ground. It is interesting to note that besides the interest in contrasting colours emphasis was also placed on the difference between matt and polished surfaces, something that can be seen once again in the illustrated earrings by Boucheron; diamonds provide a sparkling surface while the coloured gemstones provide the matt.
It is not surprising that earrings such as these, possessing most of the novel features of the time (the pronounced elongated line, the stylized, almost geometrical, floral pattern and the juxtaposition of colour and texture) were selected for the Exposition International des Arts D6coratifs et Industrielles Modernes in 1925, an exhibition held in Paris with the purpose of presenting to the public novel and modern design. It is from the abbreviated title of the exhibition, ‘Art Deco’, that the popular name for the style of the mid- i 92os and early 193os derives.
Although jewellers working in this style found sources of inspiration in the artistic traditions of countries as exotic and far apart as Egypt and China, Persia and India or Japan, the most influential eastern tradition for earrings was that of China. Chinese jade plaques carved and pierced in traditional Chinese motifs of gourds, leaves and peonies, and symbolic Chinese ‘Bl’ were imported directly from the East and mounted by famous western jewellers as long earring pendants. The great popularity of this type of earring is demonstrated by its appearance in numerous variations in the pages of earring designs of the time by Cartier London. Green jade combined with stones such as onyx and diamonds suited the striking colour schemes of Art Deco —green, black and white — and offered an interesting combination of matt and polished surfaces. Besides exploiting Chinese-crafted materials, jewellers also frequently included in their earrings imitative Chinese motifs such as stylized pagodas and lanterns. The latter is clearly recognizable in the design of a pair of French emerald and diamond pendent earrings of the mid- 19 2os reproduced here.
Another feature typical of pendent earrings of this time is that they are always mounted in platinum and, unlike some earlier types of earrings, are provided with stud rather than screw fittings. These consist of a prong soldered at the back of the earring, which is inserted into the pierced earlobe and secured by a small, usually hexagonal, plate. It is released by a spring mechanism triggered by pressing a little metal tongue projecting from the edge of the plate. This new type of fitting was more secure, and was desirable for several reasons. Firstly, women now led a much more active and dynamic life, and precious earrings might be worn at night while dancing to the frenetic rhythms of the Charleston; secondly, they were very fragile: as has been mentioned, a great number of earrings were set with long thin plaques carved in semiprecious stones such as jade, which could crack if dropped; and thirdly, it was unobtrusive, a most important feature now that the back of the ear was visible with the newly cropped bob. All Cartier’s examples seem to have been attached in this way.
In the late 1920S long pendent earrings continued in favour, but they can be distinguished from their earlier counterparts by their fuller, usually triangular or lozenge-shaped outline reminiscent of a chandelier, hence the name ‘chandelier
P. 153 earrings’. This tendency is clearly visible in the magnificent pair of pearl and diamond earrings made by Cartier in London in 1928. Their shape is undoubtedly inspired by a crystal chandelier with central drop, stylized sconces and candles. A
P. 16o, second development is the gradual submergence of colours, to be replaced by the
r61 whiteness of pearl and diamonds. Contrast was achieved by combining in the setting a variety of diamonds of different cuts: baguettes, marquise, trapeze, crescent-, triangular-, pear-shaped, and brilliant-cut diamond, all of which reflect light in different ways. Coloured gemstones did not entirely disappear; a beautiful example is the bell-shaped pair of earrings set with diamonds and Indian ruby beads, by Dray-son of London. It is interesting to note how the choice of the gemstone influences the design of the earring, reminiscent of a bell-shaped Jaipur enamel ear pendant.
Towards the end of the decade the decorative arts were inspired by motifs deriving from industry and mechanical instruments: stylized motifs of nuts and bolts set with diamonds appear in earrings. Versatility became appreciated and jewels were constructed to be worn in different ways: a pair of bracelets could be combined to form a fashionable bandeau or sautoir and earrings could be combined together on a brooch mount, as in the last example shown on p. 159•
The 1930s
The 193os are characterized by a revolutionary innovation in the history of earrings:
the clip fitting. From Antiquity to the beginning of the loth century, the only way of
wearing an earring was to insert it or its suspension hook in a hole pierced in the lobe.
As we have already seen, in the early loth century the practice of piercing ears came
to be considered barbaric, and this prompted the use of the screw fitting as an altern-
ative. But although this did avoid piercing the lobe, it was not adequate to support
heavy earrings. The clip fitting of the 193os finally allowed women to wear heavy
earrings without piercing their ears, and moreover, by securely clasping the lobe,
enabled the earring for the first time to expand upward to decorate the upper part of
64, the ear. Rosettes, stylized flowerheads, shells, cornucopias, ribbons, spirals, comets,
165 stylized wings and curled leaves decorating the upper lobe were among the favourite
earclips. In many cases, the upward curl of the design following the natural line of
the ear meant designing one earclip for the right ear and another for the left, so that A pair of stained blue chalcedony, sapphire and diamond earclips, probably by Belperron, circa 1935, each designed as a foliate motif, from the collection of jewellery of the Duchess of Windsor.
they were not interchangeable. The advertisement for Boucheron in the magazine Femina of March 1934 underlines the elegance of the new compact diamond earrings; they were well suited to the hairstyles of the time, which could either be short or long but had the hair gathered at the top or back in a bun and brushed away from the ears in fluid waves.
The ever fashionable hoop earring was also adapted to the new fitting: an open circle securely clipped to the lobe, giving the impression of passing through a nonexistent hole. These clips, continuing the late 1920S trend, were set with variously cut diamonds in white metal mounts: white monochromatic jewels were still all the rage, coloured precious and semiprecious stones being used only sparingly to pick out the design. They often came as a set with the most characteristic jewel of the 1930s, the double-clip brooch the design of which they repeated on a reduced scale.
Although compact earclips were most popular at the time, the fashion for pendent earrings never completely died out and sometimes these 193os earclips were provided with a pendant, a tassel, a drop, or a cascade of ribbons which could be attached to the lower part of the clip to make it more suitable for formal occasions, thus continuing the use of ‘versatile’ jewellery.
For evening wear during this period, long pendent earrings, again set with multicoloured gemstones, were in favour, their voluminous shapes distinguishing them quite clearly from 192os examples. They tend to expand along the horizontal axis and lose the typical vertical character of the previous decade. Different and unusual cuts for the stones continued to be exploited for coloured stones as well as for diamonds, a good example being the two pairs of pendent earrings by Cartier London, 1931-32, set with aquamarines. By the late 193os established firms were already anticipating motifs and designs which were to gain importance in the following decade. This is well exemplified by the pair of citrine and diamond pendent earrings made in 1937 by Cartier London, which are long and voluminous in form, set in yellow gold with diamonds and citrines of various shades of russet and golden yellow, something which heralds the use in I 940s jewellery of attractive coloured gemstones of comparatively low intrinsic value — citrine, aquamarines, amethysts.
The 1940s
By 194o earclips were predominant everywhere. They had large gold surfaces, replacing those set with diamonds, and more sculptural shapes such as fluttering ribbon bows, bouquets of flowers and fan-shaped motifs in contrast to the geometrical lines of the 193os. After forty years of the supremacy of platinum in jewellery, gold came back on a large scale, and it is interesting to look at major jewellers’ archives, where the transition from platinum to gold coincides with the new decade. This is very clear in the records of Boucheron Paris, where earrings produced until August 1938 are mounted in platinum, but from then on always in yellow gold. The preference for gold in jewellery also had an economic reason: at the outbreak of the war platinum was again requisitioned by the armaments industry and the jeweller had to make the most of the scarce gold on the market. The regulations controlling the use of precious metals were extremely strict, especially in France. Anyone who wished to commission a piece of jewellery in gold had to supply the raw material of which twenty per cent would go to the state. Consequently jewellery was made of very thin gold, frequently of low carat. At the same time, the irregular supply of precious gemstones, such as diamonds from South Africa and rubies and sapphires from Burma and Siam, caused a scarcity on the market. This prompted the resetting of gemstones mounted in older pieces of jewellery and the widespread use of synthetic rubies and sapphires. When precious stones were used they were either small and inexpensive or (in the case of sapphires and rubies) synthetic. Semiprecious gemstones were favoured — topaz, aquamarine, amethyst and citrine being relatively cheap yet often large in size and highly effective. In spite of the great difficulties in the turmoil of war, jewellery remained a valuable source of portable capital, and therefore went on being designed, produced and sold. The angular geometrical designs of the late 1930s were not entirely discontinued. This may be seen in mitre-shaped earclips, where the accentuated geometrical design corresponds with 193o earclips, but the choice of stones, usually citrines and small rubies, heralds the new style. As in all periods of transition one finds old and new elements merging together.
The change is clearly visible if one looks at a page of Boucheron’s archival records.
P 171 Among the designs registered for 193 8 one finds earclips characterized by rigid and geometric forms (such as no. 11.306 and no. 35.354216) and a severe linear inverted U-shaped earclip, set with calibre-cut rubies. From 1940 onwards all the designs are naturalistic, and the success and popularity of the curled leaf earclip in polished gold is attested by its consecutive orders. According to the records this model was repeated and sold 14 times from December 1941 to September 1945. Another motif was an attractive gem-set flower spray held together by fluttering rib-
p. 167 bon ties. All the naturalistic earclips are fairly compact in form, filling the lobe or following the contour of the ear. Characteristically they continue to present rather stiff features lacking movement and fluidity: the ribbon ties knotted in bows are always realized in wide surfaces of polished gold which contribute to a bold and static impression. Other favoured motifs displaying similar characteristics are rosettes and plain ribbon bows such as in the design by Mauboussin, rosette and ribbons combined together, and scrolled drape motifs. A particularly striking example of the lat-
e. 166 ter type was produced by Hoeffer & Trabert, the American branch of Mauboussin; they are typically asymmetrical and rigid in design with a scrolled surface of polished white gold and a large step-cut aquamarine at the centre, the border set with small rubies and diamonds. They are accompanied by a large brooch of identical design set with an extremely large central aquamarine, which reflects an American preference for large and flamboyant jewels. The set of earclips and matching brooch or clip is a typical feature of this period. Such heavy brooches, worn on the lapel of tailored suits, had completely supplanted the double clip brooch which had been so popular in the 1930s.
Though compact earclips were the favourite type of ear ornament, pendent earrings were not completely dismissed. The extant examples and records in archives indicate that the pendent element is often very flimsy compared to the bold surmount often consisting of two chains with various terminations such as a cone or gold beads. One sees this, for instance, in earclip with a gold scrolled surmount supporting fine chain drops, which have to be regarded more as minor decorative elements than as pendants in their own right since they are not at all in proportion with the volume of the surmount. Again this is visible in earrings by Mellerio, both those made in 1946, set with a large topaz held by two chains tied in a knot which hang down as pendants, and those of stylized cornucopia design of 1947 which suspend five bead chains. Further evidence may be found in Boucheron’s archive designs of 1943, where tubular chains of articulated links form the pendent element of entwined ribbon surmounts. Besides earrings, necklaces and bracelets were often decorated with chain tassels similar to those found on pendent earrings. A few earrings with more voluminous pendants were also created, such as those formed of two chains of gold graduated disc motifs by Boucheron, or the ‘Ferroniere’ earrings of 1944 by Mellerio, designed as a graduated line of curled gold wire. Although attractive, these long earrings did not gain the same popularity as the compact earclips.
In the mid-194os there was a vogue for light-hearted earrings, amusing and frivolous designs like the small pendent watches with the dial in a border of calibre-cut sapphires designed by Van Cleef & Arpels, or miniature buckle and belt motifs commonly known asj’arretieres.
As the 194os decade was coming to its close, earclips began to show greater movement and lightness, with gold surfaces being broken up in woven patterns or worked into twisted rope motifs combined with coloured gemstones such as turquoises and amethysts; naturalistic patterns of flowers characterized by a greater sense of movement began to prevail over scrolled drape motifs, heralding the design of the new decade made between 1945 and 1950., the 195os.
Four designs from a catalogue by Van Cleef & Arpels, Part of a page of earring design of the 1950s from Boucheron Archives, showing the variety of shapes fashionable at the time.
The 1950s
The hairstyles of the i 95os gave women complete freedom to wear their hair piled on the top of the head, knotted on the nape in a tight chignon or in short or medium-length coiffures brushed away from the ears-, all these styles were appropriate for displaying both long pendent earrings and compact clips. After a decade in which large surfaces of yellow or red gold and clips of bold, stiff and sculptural design had reigned supreme, long pendent earrings set with opulent rainfalls of diamonds in white metal mounts returned triumphantly.
The economic boom which followed the deprived war years, coupled with the desire to celebrate a return to a more relaxed and uninhibited life-style, led to the development of an aesthetic in design which aimed at free, light and functional lines. Jewellery abandoned the straight, angular lines of Art Deco, and the large bulky forms of the I 94os, and evolved new, light, curvy, aerodynamic shapes which conveyed a sense of movement. The sources of inspiration were extremely varied, as were the ways they were interpreted; naturalism, abstraction, exoticism and conventionalism happily coexisted to suit the different tastes of women, who were free to choose whatever style they preferred after the many years of uniformity of fashion during the war.
The feminine ‘new look’ launched by Dior in 1947 remained, with slight variations, in fashion for a decade, and the exuberant lines of his evening gowns characterized by narrow waists, frothy and puffy ample skirts, and above all the generous d6collet6 and pointed, heart-shaped necklines, prompted the production of a vast selection of pendent earrings of curvy, free and informal line. Diamonds were, without any doubt, the gemstone par excellence for these important creations and maintained their supremacy throughout the 195os. They suited the rich brocades, embroidered silks and precious laces of evening dresses, and were an ideal companion to the mink coat, then at the height of its popularity, by adding a touch of glitter to the face surrounded by the dark gleam of a fur collar.
The great variety of forms included all sorts of curved and fluid shaped surmounts, supporting long and voluminous articulated tassels or cascades of similarly cut diamonds. The design of the surmount was extremely varied, sometimes ngthe clip reviv-
I 1 inspiration, sometimes opting fora more naturalistic form, and
P of 1930s i
sometimes choosing abstract shapes inspired by contemporary experiments in the visual arts. Rosettes, entwined ribbons, curved leaves, flowerheads, scrolls and question marks, turbans, shooting stars and fans are just a few of the motifs for surmounts, while below would hang articulated drops reminiscent of waterfalls, cascades of leaves, festoons, waterdrops, tassels and clusters of flowers. Glittering earrings drew attention to eyes made languid and feminine by heavy lines of eyeliner pointing up at the sides. A magnificent example is that designed by Van Cleef & Arpels with a I 930s inspired rosette surmount above a rich and fluid cascade of baguette and pear-shaped diamond drops. Pearls were as much a favourite as diamonds, and earrings designed as a scrolled surmount with a pearl drop or a pearl suspended from a chain of baguette diamonds were produced in many variations. Although overshadowed by the popularity of diamonds, coloured stones such as emeralds, rubies and sapphires often added a touch of colour to otherwise monochromatic evening creations.
The metal used for these important creations de grande soir was invariably white. Platinum returned, white gold was widely used, and palladium, the lightest metal of the platinum group, made its appearance: lightness of the mount was an essential factor in the creation of these long and voluminous pendent earrings which otherwise for lightness is the practice, in the early 195os, of channel-setting small baguette diamonds in rail-like mounts, while towards the end of the decade the stones were held in place by minute claws. It was a pride of the great jewellers to create mounts where the metal was so reduced that it was practically invisible.
Although pendent earrings were the most fashionable form of ear ornament for evening wear, compact earclips were also popular, and many of the examples described above were designed so that the long drop (up to 6 or 8cms) could be detached and the surmount worn by itself. Other diamond-set short earrings assumed the shape of turbans, helixes or flowerhead clusters. A favourite design, simple yet very successful, consisted of a single pearl or mabe pearl surrounded by a foliate border of variously cut diamonds, while more elaborate examples assumed the shapes of exotic diamond flowers such as fuchsias and orchids, with a short pearl drop. A particularly
P. 174 successful model was designed by Van Cleef & Arpels in the late i 94os as a stylized fuchsia with diamond petals and short pearl drop: it gained great favour in the 1950s and its popularity continues today with slight alteration. The same may be said of the diamond-set turban supporting an acorn drop mounted with pearls often of different
P. 175 colours, designed by Verdura in 1953.
The great majority of these earrings, both long and short, were provided with a clip or, less frequently, with a screw fitting. Pierced ears were definitely out of fashion in the fifties, probably not because they were thought to be wrong in any way, as in the early part of the century, but because of the unsightly effect of a pierced earlobe when earrings were not worn. Indeed they came to be considered socially improper for the well-to-do lady and confined to the lower classes. Women who had already had their ears pierced concealed the holes with clip on earrings.
Four designs in pencil and gouache by Boucheron, March—September 195 5. The first has a rosette
surmount suspended with a cascade of baguette and brilliant-cut
diamonds, the second is designed as a stylized leaf supporting a cascade of baguette diamonds; the third and fourth are also cascades set with baguette and brilliant-cut diamonds, the last supporting a larger brilliant-cut diamond drop.
Yellow gold was the favourite material for daywear earrings which were usually short, in the shape of rosettes, fans, hoops of Creole inspiration, leaves of stylized or naturalist form, spirals, turbans, florets, helixes and clusters, at times decorated with drops and tassels. The ribbons and bows of the i 94os continued in lighter and often informally sketched forms, often combined with leaves and sprays of flowers. Typical of these earrings of the 195os was the varied and imaginative use of the metal, worked into corded wires, pleats, passementeries, woven or fretted patterns and tubular or plated chains sparingly set with small diamonds or coloured stones such as turquoises, sapphires, rubies and emeralds, combined in interesting chromatic contrasts, as seen in the examples designed by Mellerio and Van Cleef & Arpels.
Among the most typical earclips of the time is that designed as a ‘boule’ of gold wire, set with different combinations of gemstones such as rubies and turquoises (the favourite semiprecious stone of the fifties), or rubies and sapphires with diamonds.

Stools, Chairs and Settees
Early forms of stools—development of the chair—scarcity of chairs before the 17th century—etiquette of the joined stool—upholstered farthingale chairs—”monk seats” and Commonwealth chairs—Restoration chair design—characteristics of William and Mary chairs—Queen Anne cabriole legs and the fiddle splat—wing chairs—Chippendale chair designs—chair backs of Hepplewhite—Adam’s classical shapes—Sheraton elegance—Regency and early Victorian chairs—the mystery of the Windsor chair—harlequin sets—the emergence of the settle—love seats and the development of the settee two tiered tables .
On a marble panel in Athens which dates from around 400 B serving tray antique tea table for sale .c antique butler type ashtrays . a woman is to be seen seated on a chair which has all the characteristics of a British chair of the Regency period antiquing furniture . The designers of Regency furniture, like Thomas Hope and Henry Moses, went to the ancient civilisations for their inspiration and this chair in the Athenian sculpture is an interesting case of “it has all happened before” 6 legged table antique .
After the disorders of the Dark Ages when so much of art and craftsmanship was lost, the way of making beautiful and serviceable things had to be rediscovered or reinvented antique regency revival sideboard . At the beginning of the early Tudor period it can be said that in any house, even of the greatest importance, most people had to be content to sit on stools blacks, meissen, porcelain . Sometimes these were of the planked type as illustrated in Chapter 1, but more often they were made of turned wood with triangular shaped seats women brass lamps . This type of stool was common throughout northern Europe and when they are encountered it is difficult to say what may have been their country of origin painted romer glass .
Small chests were also used as seats in early times and formed one of the sources from which the chair developed, the other being the triangular-seated stool japanese black lacquer round tea table . In both these instances the need to provide additional support for the body brought about the addition of backs and arms to the stools antique french office chair . The first box or chest chairs were very heavy and cumbersome and it became evident that there was little advantage in constructing chairs in this way antique half circle dropleaf table . For a short while this type of chair was made without the lower side and back panels but with the front panel still included staffordshire figure lovers couple . By the middle of the 16th century the oak armchair, without any lower panels in the framework, was to be found in most houses of the reasonably well-to-do antique porcelain +swan +painted .
A custom, lasting for many years, delayed the employment of the chair for general use black stinkwood table sale . During the second half of the 16th and for the greater part of the 17th century it was commonly accepted that only the head of the family or the master of the house should occupy a chair 2 tier adams style table lid . In some homes a thoughtful husband might provide a chair for his wife but as for the rest of the household, they had to use stools or remain standing wiener werkstatte chair . The modern word chairman, to denote the head of a committee, is probably derived from this ancient practice earthenware mixing bowls antique with handles . On a point of etiquette, observed in Britain during the 17th century, a host and his wife would vacate their chairs when entertaining an important guest and would sit on joined stools, as a mark of deference, while the guest occupied a chair american spoonback armchair .
The heavy oak arm-chair of the late Elizabethan and the early Stuart periods was of very much the same pattern with turned legs and a carved or inlaid panel in the chair-back candlestick 17th century church . The only marked difference in construction was in the top rail of the back antique display cabinet half round . While the Elizabethan chair had the top rail jointed between the uprights, the Stuart version had the uprights jointed into the top rail which projected at the sides and was supported by “ears” or small brackets 18th century card table .
The joined stool must have been made in considerable numbers during the 17th century as it was frequently referred to in bequests and inventories empire pier table . Nowadays, it is sometimes called a coffin stool which is rather a misnomer breakfast serving tables . It is true that in many old churches joined stools are to be found carrying piles of hymn books or collecting boxes and occasionally they may have been used for supporting a coffin during a burial service, but they were certainly not designed for that purpose european porcelain marks 1742 . A joined stool was the average person’s seat in the 17th-century household, either at the dining table or around the fire kidney shaped tables antique . It is likely that those found in old churches today were banished there from the vicarage when custom and funds permitted the parson to provide himself with the more comfortable chairs botanical antique ceramics collectors .
While chairs with wooden seats were in use throughout the 17th century and also during the 18th in the houses of country-folk, upholstereed chairs did appear in the early Stuart period antique extend side table . These, like the farthingale chairs, have already been mentioned in a previous chapter but during the Commonwealth somewhat heavy oak dining chairs were taken into use about the same time as the gate-leg table appeared thomas sheraton games table . These were similar to the farthingale chairs but had lower seats and higher backs which were upholstered in thick leather and edged with large brass round-headed nails antique empire pier table .
An interesting, dual-purpose piece of furniture was developed about this time satsuma pottery thousand flower . Known as a table-chair, it was constructed so that when the table-top was tilted to a vertical position it formed the back of a chair kidney shape dressing table . It is sometimes referred to as a monk’s seat, but the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the consequent banishment of the monks from the British way of life had occurred over a hundred years before the table-chair was invented 19th century tables .
The chief characteristic of Restoration chair design was the spiral twist for legs and backs english refectory table . A favourite motif of the wood-carver for chair decoration was the device of two cherubs, or amorini, supporting a royal crown c 1840 antique pedestal card table . This was inspired by the return of the monarchy after the Commonwealth and remained in popular favour until the close of the century antique secretaire . Chairs of the better quality were usually made in walnut but in the provinces many dining chairs were produced in oak 18th century chamber pots . Two varieties of these are usually referred to as Yorkshire and Lancashire chairs antique chair tall skinny back . They were quite heavily made and the former had two shaped and rounded back-rails, decorated with carving and bearing a small bearded mask century hepplewhite walnut card table . Traditionally, this was said to represent the death mask of the martyred Charles I and earned for this Yorkshire type the name of mortuary chair antique soup terrines . The Lancashire chairs, on the other hand, have panelled backs and I have an example in my possession on which the carving is very similar to that on a set in the ancient Chetham’s School, Manchester, which dates from the mid-17th century royal sheffield candlesticks . The finials on the uprights of my chair are the same as those on a settle which appears in Brueghel’s painting The Village Wedding meissen scattered flowers tea sets . The Brueghel picture was painted about 1530 and so we realise the slow movement of continental influence showing itself in the north of England over a hundred years later 16th century japanese tables .
Portuguese and Spanish characteristics, entering England directly through royal marriages or more deviously through France and the Netherlands, considerably affected the design of William and Mary chairs scriptoire . Here is found the tall, narrow back and the scrolled foot which during the reign of Queen Anne was to develop into thy, cabriole leg art deco polished matte lost-wax castings o nude women in bronze by viennese artisans . On these chairs the design of the upper back rail is often repeated in the lower front rail antique chippendale dining chairs with bronze leg decoration .
The type of chair which evolved during the first decade
of the 18th century was very pleasing to the eye antique brown staffordshire . The first cabriole legs were quite plain but the chair-makers of the lime did not consider that the chair legs were sufficiently strong to be made without connecting stretchers antique dining room with bulbous legs . However, by introducing a deeper seat rail it became possible to make a stronger joint at the top of the chair leg and eventually the stretchers were dispensed with altogether antique dresser names . The chair-backs of the Queen Anne period were of a pleasantly rounded appearance with a fiddle-shaped central splat, curved to support the sitter’s back meissen figures .
During the early Georgian period the cabriole leg remained in favour and without the stretchers was more sturdily fashioned than the finer Queen Anne shape 17th century writing desk . Moreover, it became the custom in the better class of chair to ornament the knees of the cabriole legs with carved shells, acanthus leaves or satyr masks american art deco bar furniture . Instead of a simple pad at the bottom of the leg, the ball and claw foot was adopted 19th century pennsylvania furniture prices . This was a pattern derived from a Chinese dragon motif which clasped in its claw a celestial pearl 19th century antique hall table . All-over upholstery of chair backs now became fashionable, but it was a vogue which died out when Chippendale and his contemporaries introduced the elaborately carved chair backs of the mid-18th century duncan phyfe table and buffet .
Chippendale included a straight, square sectioned leg among the designs for his chairs and when made in the Chinese taste these were covered in low-relief carving to simulate lattice work edward round drum tables . As if there was some doubt as to the structural efficiency of these legs, the use of stretchers was re-introduced art deco round glass chinese painted coffee table value . Chair backs were generally rectangular, whether the style was Gothic, Chinese or one of the many rococo patterns which decorated the pierced splats antique bedside toilet . Some of these complicated designs from Chippendale’s Director were rather pleasingly simplified by country craftsmen, e antique silver fish knives ivory handle .g english knife box . the well-known rush-seated ladder-back chair early american wall mirror .
Around the beginning of the 18th century the wing-wardly curving upholstered arms and cabriole feet antique german breakfast table . Later in the century the arms were made more upright and the side wings larger victorian cherry drop leaf table . The wing-chair is deceptive both in size and comfort small antique dressing table with cabriole legs . It often looks smaller than it really is and care should be taken before buying one to ensure that it will really fit in wherever it is intended to go early 19th century mahogany desks with lion feet . Although the winged chair marked a great advance in human comfort at the time, the unsprung seating feels hard compared with the resilience of 20th-century upholstery antique inlaid marquetry dutch chairs .
While George Hepplewhite was known to have made a considerable quantity of furniture to the designs of Robert Adam, he himself was probably responsible for many well-known types of chair such as the shield-back, the oval-back and the feathers pattern sofa table mahogany antique . The backs of Hepplewhite’s chairs were more rounded than those of his predecessors and he also favoured tapered legs which were often fluted utensils used in britain for cooking . His furniture generally was of a lighter appearance than that which had gone before occasional tables painted india . Sets of dining chairs usually consisted of ten or twelve single chairs and two arm-chairs or carvers antique rectangular drop leaf dining table . These latter were designed to accommodate the broad figures and full frock coats of the l8th-century gentlemen and the seats were made proportionately wide rue la la . The curve and sweep of the arms is also noteworthy for they were cut from solid blocks of mahogany of a size which would make it uneconomic to employ in modern reproductions “myott, son & co” .
Robert Adam designed his chairs to match the classical interior decoration of the houses he built vintage wooden card table . They had turned and fluted or tapered legs and the lyre-back pattern was typical 19th century glass fronted cabinet . He contrived some elegant gilded chairs whose backs were adorned with small painted medallions on which appeared figures from Greek and Roman mythology georgian dressing tables . These were painted by contemporary artists like Angelica Kauffmann and Zucchi lenci mermaid figurines . Adam also introduced the fashion for painted beechwood furniture, and chairs in this style were often finished in black or white paint, neatly lined with gilding kem weber furniture designer prices .
For some time previously gilded furniture had enjoyed considerable popularity art deco reproductions clock . It is said that it was first introduced according to the wishes of the wives of those Georgian gentlemen who were filling their Palladian mansions with the rich but somewhat sombre mahogany furniture rare antique drop leaf . Quite a large proportion of this gilded furniture was imported from France and it is very difficult to identify English made chairs from the French originals german antique work tables . French chairs are believed to have upholstered pads on the arms and small peg-like ends to the scrolled feet while English gilded chairs are supposed not to have had any upholstery on the arms while the scrolls reached right down to the end of the legs bauhaus style furniture +scale . 1 have, however, seen both English and French chairs with variations of all these characteristics oriental writing bureau cabinet .
The rectangular chair-back returned with Thomas Sheraton, who of all the 18th-century designers could probably claim to have the greatest delicacy of taste antique chamber cabinets . He owed this success to a lightness of construction, hitherto unattained, and to his use of the natural beauty of the mahogany and satinwood grain directoire sofa . This he left without embellishment except for a slight amount of inlay and some boxwood stringing along the edges antique 18th century cedar chest . Sheraton was very close to the 20th century in his chair designs and I have seen dining chairs produced by well-known designers of the present day where the influence of Thomas Sheraton has been very strong indeed andre delatte .
Regency chairs have a distinctive elegance of their own, and although they could be bought quite cheaply in sets before the 1939-45 War, today they are very much in demand nest of 20 drawers . They are rather simply shaped with slender, turned legs and attractively scrolled backs antique art deco fixture . The back rails are often inlaid with ebony or brass and the lower rail is sometimes found carved like a rope length silver forks made in london . It was during this period that the top back rail was constructed so that it protruded on either side of the uprights, this design often being associated with the so-called sabre-shaped leg small sterling silver clocks .
The Restoration spiral twist now re-appeared in the Abbotsford furniture of the early Victorian period antique kayseri silk carpet pictoral niche . These chairs were usually made of walnut or rosewood but could never be mistaken for late 17th-century pieces antique oakchamber pot chair with hinged top . In spite of their rather fussy character and beadwork upholstery they are attractive and well worth acquiring bone handled fork converted to knive . About 1860 the cabriole leg returned to favour and many sets of attractive chairs, designed for the drawing room or parlour, were produced walnut escutcheons . Country-made rush-seated chairs with turned spindle backs and club legs date from the early 19th century and are still made in some northern counties french table stretcher draw leaf .
The origin of the Windsor chair is shrouded in mystery, as is also the name antique dresser with drawers stamped 54 . The tale that George III discovered this turned-wood type of chair at a house in the Chilterns and found it so to his liking that he had it sent to Windsor for his personal use may be accepted with that degree of credulity accorded to many fables concerning antiques cabinet makers antique work bench . Some authorities date the Windsor chair from the late 17th century and others from the mid-18th edwardian wardrobes . It is more than likely that in areas such as the Chilterns, where there are extensive beech forests, turned-wood stools and chairs have been produced for a very long time, even as far back as the 16th century desk boulle style . The Windsor chair as it is known today was really a product of the 18th century and it was probably during that time that it reached that very high degree of functional design for which it has become famous william kent eagle console table . Traditionally, these chairs have legs and spindles of beech which until a short time ago were shaped on crude lathes in the beechwoods by turners known as bodgers antique draw leaf dining table . The hooped backs and arms were made of ash which could be easily steamed and bent to shape while the seats were of elm because they could be cut in one piece from the broad elm boards silverware sets real fake . Some Windsor chairs have yew-wood arms, backs and spindles but are rather more rare and consequently more expensive to acquire italian provincial furniture . Those which have a shaped central splat in the back with a small wheel-like figure incorporated in the design are usually referred to as wheel-back chairs german antique sideboards and buffets fluted .
I have already mentioned sets of Georgian dining chairs and these command a high price, even when country-made russian porcelain antique . Due to a 19th-century custom of dividing sets of chairs among the beneficiaries of the will on the death of the owner, it is quite common to find single specimens or pairs of chairs of almost any period in sale-rooms and antique shops 18th century victorian toilet in dining room . Accordingly, it is not a difficult matter to collect what is sometimes referred to by the antique trade as a harlequin set of different chairs, either of the same or various periods empire curved bureau . In my dining room I have a very pleasant example of the Hepplewhite period, a pair and one single chair of Sheraton design, and two Regency carvers song dynasty bluish green glazed earthenware . None of these cost more than £5 and some much less countries that art deco was very popular .
High-backed oak settles look cosy and attractive before an open fire in a country inn but they are not really very comfortable and seldom fit in with a modest collection of antique furniture 18th century king george red velvet arm chair value . They often have a chest beneath with a hinged lid in the seat and sometimes shaped wings at the sides to combat the draughts pilaster bookstand price . The low-back settle or panelled settee with cabriole legs and a long overlaid cushioned seat are a better proposition and can be bought for under E10 antique cherry drop leaf table claw foot .
Of much rarer vintage is the double seated settee or love seat, designed according to tradition for the use of courting couples “desk”+”antique” . I believe that this is just another fable as these seats are not infrequently found in pairs, the second one provided, perhaps, for the chaperone simple design dressing table . More likely these love seats were merely part of the seating accommodation provided in a large salon or ballroom for the assem-blies and routs so much beloved by the Georgians ornate antique silver roast serving platter .
Longer settees with cabriole or square Chippendale type legs, and with padded arms and upholstered seats and backs, made an appearance in the second half of the 18th century francaise antique . Apparently they did not develop in popularity as there are comparatively few about and their places were taken by the sofa and couch swansea duck egg .

ART NOUVEAU BELGIAN FURNITURE: LADY’S BUREAU, MAHOGANY AND MIXED-WOOD TABLE, MAHOGANY SCREEN, WALNUT TABLE, COIFFEUSE.

IN LATE 19TH-CENTURY Europe, Art
Nouveau reached its creative peak in Belgium. Its success there was largely due to the fact that people were encouraged to explore fresh, exciting ways of looking at the arts.
The same, spirited Art Nouveau message that called fora cohesive, unified interior — so successfully accomplished elsewhere in Europe —took root in Belgium in the work of a number of innovative artist-architects, such as Victor Hotta, Henry van de Velde, and Gustave Serrurier-Bovy
The Belgian version of Art Nouveau had much in common with its French counterpart. Both embraced free-flowing, sinuous, sculptural furniture, and had a rich vocabulary of decorative motifs in organic shapes — plants, Hower blossoms, trees, butterflies, and insects — all drawn from the natural world.
HENRY VAN DE VELDE
Henry van de Velde won universal acclaim for the design of his own home near Brussels — Bloemenwerf —where furniture, carpets, and wall coverings combined to create a harmonious whole. He forged strong links with France by showcasing and selling his furniture at prestigious retail shops in Paris, including Siegfried Bing’s FArt Nouveau and La Maison Modern owned by Julius Meier-Graefe. Widely celebrated
throughout Europe, van de Velde was influenced by the writings of William Morris and believed that art should always follow organic form — a theory that underlined his furniture designs. Echoing nature’s subtle curves and lines, they were rendered in light-coloured, native timbers such as walnut, beech, and oak, and had minimal decoration. Despite van de Velde’s theories, function was key to his sturdy yet elegantly simple cabinets, tables, and writing desks.
VICTOR HORTA
Another Belgian pioneer of the Art Nouveau style was the architect and designer, Victor Hotta, who designed spectacular buildings such as the
splendid Hotel Tassel in Brussels. His interiors coalesced into harmonious and integrated ensembles: from wall panelling, ceilings, and door frames to furniture and metalwork fixtures, using an exciting range of new
materials, such as iron and glass.
The cross-fertilization between French and Belgian Art Nouveau resulted in Horta’s energetic, curving style — with its signature whiplash curves — influencing Parisian designers such as Hector Guimard. His expensive furniture was skilfully crafted in luxurious timbers such as maple, mahogany, and fruitwoods, and lavishly upholstered in fabrics such as velvet and silk.

GUSTAVE SERRURIER-BOVY
Like van de Velde and Horta, Gustave Serrurier-Bovy adopted many familiar Art Nouveau decorative motifs to complement his furniture, including plants and flowers, sinuous curves, and high-wrought mounts of pewter or brass. Determined to produce well-designed furniture for everyone, Serrurier-Bovy was also inspired by the English Arts and Crafts Movement, as seen in his robust, rectilinear furniture and in his preference for oak.
The influence of these highly original Belgian designers reached beyond their national borders to set the cultural standard for Art Nouveau furniture throughout much of Europe.
The Musee Hotta This building was originally built by Victor Horta as his own studio and residence. This view shows the integrated interior, with both the staircase and glass dome featuring his
characteristic whiplash curves. 1898.

COIFFEUSE
This mahogany coiffeuse was designed by the artist-architect, Gustave Serrurier-Bovy, as a piece of bedroom furniture. The mirror is comprised of three panels, contained within a gently curving frame. The table section has
two pairs of drawers above and two drawers below. The elegant, curved lines of the top of the piece are echoed in the arched stretchers joining the legs, and the arch at the front of the table, which creates the kneehole. 1899.
BED FRAME
s bed frame has a bold, curvilinear shape is made from stained oak. It was designed Henry van de Velde. The head has bowed and arched profiles and ’s of raised and fielded, shield-shaped
panels. The piece terminates in splayed feet, which form part of the overall curved shape, and rests on brass casters. Henry van de Velde believed that art should follow an organic form and this influenced the shape and decoration of his furniture. c.1897-98.

SIDE CHAIR
This mahogany chair was designed by Victor Horta and illustrates his use of sumptuous materials and curving style, as shown in the design of the chair back, legs, and stretchers. The seat
is covered with a generously upholstered cushion.
c.1901.
WALNUT TABLE
This walnut occasional table has an overhanging circular top, arched apron, and curving, cabriole legs that terminate in stylized feet. The piece was designed by Henry
van de Velde. c.1916.
MAHOGANY SCREEN
This mahogany screen, designed by Gustave Serrurier-Bovy, has three glass panels that create strong vertical lines. In contrast, the top of the piece is sinuous in shape. While the glass in the lower half of the screen is original, the upper pieces are replacements.
1899.

MAHOGANY AND MIXED-WOOD TABLE
This side table is made of mahogany decorated with marquetry. The top is inlaid with a floral decoration above a short drawer, and the cupboard is inlaid with a daffodil design. The supports are embellished with sinuous tendrils and brass fittings.
c. 1902.
LADY’S BUREAU
Designed by Henry van de Velde and made by H. Scheidemantel in Weimar, this bureau design is typical of the work of van de Velde. The curved lines of the wood are used to create an unusual and organic shape, avoiding applied, inlaid, or any elaborate decoration. The only detailing is the unobtrusive, copper key mounts and the brass shoes. c.1903.

Art Deco Cabinets and Sideboards: BRITISH WALNUT SIDEBOARD, BURLED MAPLE CONSOLE, FRENCH COMMODE, FRENCH SIDE CABINET, BRITISH SIDEBOARD, BRITISH DISPLAY CABINET, BRITISH SIDE CABINET.

THE CLEAN LINES and geometric shapes of Art Deco cabinets gave free reign to the prevailing taste for luxurious finishes. The cocktail cabinet made its first appearance in the jazz age. Featuring mirrored interiors and door panels, it contained enough shelving to house all the accoutrements for making cocktails.
REFINED OPULENCE
French furniture designers, such as Paul Follot and Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, created cabinets that were veneered in a wide range of exotic timbers, including amboyna, bird’s-eye maple, mahogany, zebrawood, rosewood, and sycamore, which were admired for their distinctive markings and lustrous sheen. Understated and refined decorative features adorned their cabinets. Crossbanding was used as edging along the top of a cabinet and delicate marquetry flower
bouquets appeared sparingly. Drawer pulls were defined by their contrasting shapes or finishing material. Decorative motifs were created from rare and
expensive materials, such as ivory, shagreen, tortoiseshell, and wrought iron. Oriental lacquerwork in strong colours was also used by some cabinetmakers, especially Jean Dunand and Eileen Gray.
CLEAN LINES
Furniture-makers working in the Modernist strand of Art Deco, such as Sidney Barnsley in Britain and Paul Frank] and Eliel Saarinen in the United States, created streamlined cabinets in geometric shapes. These designers still used lacquerwork and exotic veneers, but they combined them with modern materials, such as Bakelite, mirror glass, and tubular steel. Ivory, metal, and chrome were used to provide decorative details.
The stepped top of the cabinet is a distinctive Art Deco feature.
The cabinet is veneered with conornandel, an unusual variety of ebony.

The handles are painted red to look like lacquerwork.
The bracket feet are similar to those on late 17th- and 18th-century case furniture.
BRITISH SIDE CABINET
This rectangular side cabinet, flanked with a further two slim cabinets, is veneered with Coromandel, a variety of ebony sometimes known as zebrawood because of its distinctive striped markings. Below the stepped top, there
is a central drawer and the main cabinet, which has two doors. Two cabinets compose the outer sides. The bracket feet and the door and drawer handles are painted red, the only obvious form of decoration. The cabinet was designed by Whytock and Reid of Edinburgh.

BRITISH DISPLAY CABINET
This stylized display cabinet is veneered in walnut. The upper section of the cabinet is circular in form, with two glazed doors enclosing two glazed shelves. The cabinet is raised upon a panelled base and has block feet.
BRITISH DISPLAY CABINET
This unusual display cabinet, possibly veneered in walnut, is carried on two, deeply grooved triangular supports that resemble a fish’s fins. The cabinet itself is circular and has two
minimally decorated glass doors, which enclose four wooden shelves.
BELGIAN SIDEBOARD
This Belgian sideboard is crafted from mahogany, and veneered with rosewood. The shape recalls the forms of late 18th-century commodes. The minimalist design of this rectangular sideboard consists of two simple
doors with understated bronze handles, and the whole piece is raised on short, circular bronze feet. The clean-lined, geometric shape of the piece is complemented by the distinctive vertical figure of the lustrous rosewood veneer used all over the case. c.1935.
BRITISH SIDEBOARD
This sideboard, designed by M.P. Davis of London, is crafted in bleached mahogany.The central
pull-out drawers are slightly protruding, arching outwards. The strongly marked, distinctive figure of the mahogany veneer gives the geometric sideboard a rich opulence that needs no additional ornament - a characteristic common of much Art Deco furniture. c.1929.

FRENCH SIDE CABINET
This side cabinet is made from mahogany, with amboyna veneering and a stylized ebony inlay. The three drawers have circular metal handles and the whole cabinet is raised on tall, cylindrical, tapering legs. c.1935.
Designed by Sue et Mare, this rectilinear, mahogany-veneered commode is a good example of their understated yet luxurious style. The two cabinet doors have subtly stylized circular handles, and the legs and the lower edge of the cabinet are lightly embellished with carving. The cabinet is raised on four slightly tapering, moulded legs. c.1919.
This rectangular burr maple console has four centrally placed drawers with nickled brass handles. These are flanked by a pair of cupboard doors with circular wooden handles. The whole console is supported on two rectangular side panels. Beneath the cupboards and drawers there is a lower shelf that connects the two side panel supports.
FRENCH COMMODE
BURLED MAPLE CONSOLE

This sideboard, designed by Whytock and Reid of Edinburgh, has a rectangular crossbanded top, above an ornate, relief-carved cupboard door. Burr walnut doors flank the cupboard door, and the whole sideboard stands upon shaped legs with moulded feet.
This Swedish sideboard is made from birch, a popular light timber native to Scandinavia, with ebony and burr ash details. It has two cupboards with simple rectangular handles, short cabriole legs, and moulded, splayed feet. The centrally placed, geometric, dark wooden motif is influenced by Asian decorative motifs. c.1930.
This mahogany sideboard is a good example of French Art Deco, with its simple elegant forms, rectilinear design, and high standard of craftsmanship. The cabinet has four cabinet doors, decorated with narrow horizontal bands
of chrome and a central circular feature. The whole sideboard is raised on a pedestal block base. It is typical of Art Deco styling in combining fine woodwork with chrome details. c.1925.
Designed by H&L Epstein, this fine rectangular maple sideboard has rounded corners and a stepped top. The central section is made up of two drawers with circular, moulded handles above a cupboard with a decorative vertical,
slatted-wood design. Two more cupboards with moulded oblong wooden handles flank the central section of the sideboard. The whole sideboard is set on a block base. c.1935.
BRITISH WALNUT SIDEBOARD
FRENCH SIDEBOARD
BRITISH SIDEBOARD
SWEDISH SIDEBOARD

Art Deco European Furniture: ITALIAN CABINET, WALNUT EASY CHAIR, ITALIAN BUFFET, SWEDISH CHAIR, BELGIAN DESK, ITALIAN COFFEE TABLE

TREMENDOUS UPHEAVALS came about
in Europe in the wake of World War 1. The need for change was keenly felt by architects and designers from Italy to Belgium and the Netherlands, and from Germany to Scandinavia.
At the heart of this longing for change lay a functionalist ideology and a desire for art to accommodate the exciting technological advances of the early 20th century Mass-produced, functional furniture designs became the order of the day, a philosophy that was realized by Alvar Aalto in Finland and with the formation in 1919 of the Bauhaus by Walter Gropius. Internationally acclaimed, the Bauhaus sought to
bring together the talents of creative artists, designers, and craftsmen, to create prototype designs suitable for industrial mass production (see p.426).
Although the Modernist Bauhaus style prevailed in Germany during the 1920s and 1930s, there were also architects and designers working in a more decorative manner. Using vibrant colours, and drawing on the Rococo and Biedermeier styles for inspiration, German Art Deco furniture exhibited Oriental touches in its use of lacquer, together with Cubist detailing. Bruno Paul’s “Room for a Gentleman”, shown at Macy’s department store in New York in 1928, was typical of the
restrained form of Art Deco that was pursued by these German designers. The room contained lacquered furniture with inlay work, and a rug with a geometric design. Many German and Austrian – mainly Jewish – designers emigrated to America in the late 1.920s and early I 930s, and joined Paul Frankl (see p.397) in developing the Art Deco style there.
NORTHERN EUROPEAN TRENDS It was in the Netherlands that the concept of abstraction was first applied to furniture design. At the helm of this revolutionary artistic idea was the avant-garde De Stijl group, formed
in 1917 by the painters Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. The functionalist furniture designed by the group was conspicuously absent from the 1925 Paris Exhibition. The Dutch pavilion there was designed by J.E Staal, a member of the Amsterdam School, which favoured the use of theatrical, expressionist, and Oriental motifs in furniture designs. Among the exhibits was furniture by C.A. Lion Cachet, designed for a Dutch ocean liner. He used dark tropical woods inlaid with ivory and lighter woods in traditional-shaped pieces with Oriental decoration and parchment panels. Jaap Gidding’s cinema and theatre interiors also followed the French Art Deco style. The Tuschinski cinema in Amsterdam (1918-21) was typical, with its decorative, opulent interior, and special light effects.
In Scandinavia, Art Deco took a more classical turn with an emphasis on elegance, proportion, luxurious materials, and hand-crafting. In 1930, British writer, Morton Shand, defined the Swedish restrained Neoclassical style prevalent at the 1925 Paris
Exhibition as a “line characterized by its slender and almost elfin grace”. Exhibiting a similar style, Otto Meyer’s and Jacob Petersen’s graceful, curving chairs crafted out A sycamore and
mahogany were superbly set off by the batik wall-covering of Ebbe Sadolin in the Danish pavilion.
ITALIAN BALANCE
Italian furniture designers struggled to find a balance between the demand for classical elegance and the language of the sophisticated modern style.
Although ill at case with the display of sumptuous luxury that was the hallmark of French Art Deco, Italian cabinets, tables, writing desks, and chairs made full use of the beauty of lustrous local and exotic timbers. Many of them were embellished with bronze mounts, or lightly carved or
inlaid patterns of flower baskets, garlands, or geometric motifs that were typical of Art Deco.
The Italian version of Art Deco reached its fullest expression in the hands of the innovative architect Gio Ponti. He successfully managed to combine the functional, geometric, spare structure promoted by the Wiener Werkstatte designers with the sophisticated and elegant refinements of the French Art Deco style.

ITALIAN COFFEE TABLE
This fine Italian coffee table has a rectangular glass-topped surface on tapering plank legs. It has been crafted from bird’s-eye maple and ebony veneer. Exotic wood veneers, such as the ebony used in this piece, were commonly used
in European Art Deco furniture. The dark ebony highlights the simple geometric structure of the coffee table.
This Swiss walnut desk has a rectangular top with rounded corners. The central drawer and two flanking cabinets have decorative “English-style” handles, and the whole piece is raised
on square feet. The grain of the walnut has been highlighted, providing additional visual interest. c.1925.
BELGIAN DESK
Designed by De Coene Freres, this Belgian desk has four drawers, tapering legs, and nickel feet, and is covered in black lacquer. The sleek black design demonstrates a relinquishing of unnecessary decoration in favour of pure functionality. c. 1930.
SWEDISH CHAIR
This Swedish Art Deco chair is upholstered in brown leather and supported upon tapering legs, with two slightly splayed rear legs, and curvilinear arm rests. The backrest has a
central panel with burr wood and satinwood details. c.1920.
This bridge chair is one of a pair designed by De Coene Freres. The curved armrests form a continuous “U” shape with the bowed seat frame. The chair is upholstered in a red, checked fabric and has tapering front legs.

The rectilinear structure of the buffet is emphasized by the austere placement
of the doors and drawers.
The ivory inlay used for the drawer pulls is a typical Art Deco detail.
ITALIAN BUFFET
The shelf structure of this Italian buffet is characteristic of Art Deco design, combining clean lines and asymmetry with a luxurious and decorative burr wood finish. The shelf structure contains a mirror on a case with four small drawers and a twin
cabinet door enclosing an adjustable shelf. Subtle, inlaid handles are attached to the four drawers and the cabinet doors. The geometric shape is typical of Italian Art Deco, which took its lead from the Wiener Werlkstatte. The use of exotic timber is more typical of the French style.
The burr wood veneer
makes a boldly
luxurious statement
ITALIAN CABINET
This rectangular Ulrich Guglielmo cabinet has two doors and is supported on a square plinth lined with goat parchment. The doors have ivory mounts and the plinth is veneered with kingwood. Round ebony knobs, with gilded bronze mountings and keys, are attached to the 14 interior drawers. c.1930.
WALNUT EASY CHAIR
This continental walnut easy chair is upholstered in cream, a popular colour in Art Deco furniture design. The chair has broad, curving armrests, each supported on three vertical fluted rods, and moulded sledge-like block feet.

American Art Deco Furniture: MAPLE DESK, CHINA CABINET, PAINTED SCREEN, COMMODE, ILLUMINATED BAR.

ALTHOUGH THE UNITED STATES did not
participate in the 1925 Paris Exhibition, the Exhibition was still hugely influential there. Many American designers, including Eugene Schoen, visited it, and it was covered by American newspapers and magazines. Also, the following year, a tour of more than 400 objects that had been displayed in Paris was organized by Charles Richards, director of the American Association of Museums. He had been impressed by the Exhibition and hoped to initiate
“a parallel movement” in the United States by mounting the tour.
New York department stores, such as Lord & Taylor and R.H. Macy Company, also helped to publicize the Art Deco style by putting on exhibitions in the late 1920s of Art Deco furniture by leading Parisian designers. Eugene Schoen emulated his French contemporaries by creating pieces in rare and exotic woods, incorporating marquetry and inlays, coloured lacquers, and subtle carvings. His forms were architectural, with
their clean lines and restrained, stylized decoration, and his cabinetmaking was of the highest quality.
A NEW DIRECTION
A parallel Art Deco movement did blossom in the United States, but it developed along different lines to those of Europe. A handful of innovative designers, such as Paul Frankl, K.E.M. Weber, and Josef Urban, who had been born in Europe, combined the French Art Deco style with those of the Bauhaus (see p.386) and the Wiener
Werkstatte in their designs. Instead of producing expensive luxury pieces, they created well-crafted, functional pieces that could be mass produced.
Donald Deskey, the principal interior designer for New York City’s Radio City Music Hall, created dramatic, highly charged furniture. It combined the luxurious elements of French Art Deco with the more functional and rectilinear features of the Bauhaus style, which made full use of the latest technology. Deskey used the rare woods, lacquer, and glass loved by French designers but combined them with modern materials, such as aluminium and Bakelite, to embellish his opulent furniture designs.
American designers welcomed the machine age with open arms. They decorated their furniture with machine motifs, such as interlocking cogs and wheels. They celebrated speed and dynamism with the increasingly streamlined look of their furniture inspired by automobiles, ocean liners, and locomotives, and motifs based on dramatic bolts of lightning. They made bold use of Cubist-inspired geometric shapes and jazzy abstract patterns, arid iucludcd iconic American molds based
on the modern city and way of life, such as the skyscraper.
The industrial designer K.E.M. Weber established a Californian version of Art Deco. His distinctive furniture was mostly made from metal and glass and often had skyscraper-like features. Weber created sleek, functional furniture for private commissions as well as designs intended for mass production, using new materials such as chromed metal, sprung steel, and laminated wood. He also designed lavish Art Deco furniture for dazzling Hollywood film sets, which were largely responsible for transmitting the American Art Deco style to the world.

Eugene Schoen designed this maple desk for Schieg Hungate and Kotzian. The heavy rectangular desktop, with moulded sides, sits on block feet. The supporting table underneath, which has a semi-circular cut-out, carries the desktop section. c.1935
Signed and dated Robert W Charter
1928.
CHINA CABINET
This simple, rectilinear cabinet was designed by Paul Frankl. The limed, slate grey base and case of the lower section provide a striking contrast to the three ivory doors with semi-circular brass pulls. On top of this is is an unadorned china cabinet with a limed ivory finish. The three shelves of the cabinet are enclosed by two sliding glass doors.
MAPLE DESK
PAINTED SCREEN
This dramatic, three-panelled wooden screen by Robert Winthrop Chanter features two zebras locked in combat, painted in black and tan on an ivory background. The back of the screen is decorated with diagonal stripes in black with silver foil, in imitation of a zebra’s stripes.
The screen is signed and dated in the lower right corner. Chanter’s screens were greatly admired, and this example was commissioned by the Broadway composer Kay Swift and her husband. Screens were popular during the Art Deco period and this particular piece is of the utmost luxury, as emphasized by the use of silver foil. 1928.

PAINTED CHAIR
This William L. Price painted chair has moulded legs and an intricately carved backrest. It was designed for the dining room at Traymore Hotel, New Jersey, which was demolished in 1972.
STEEL STOOL
One of a set of four patinated steel stools, this stool has an upholstered, padded seat and a pierced apron cast with scrolling foliage. The stool has turned supports, linked by stretchers, with a maker’s label.
COMMODE
Designed by John Widdicomb for a department store, this commode has a geometrically inlaid top above a single long drawer, with stylized inlay. The twin inlaid and figured panel doors enclose three drawers. H 111.75cm (44in). FRE
ILLUMINATED BAR
Made from black lacquer with an exotic wood veneer, this illuminated bar has a central cabinet with fluted doors and a mirrored interior.
It was in 1925 that Frankl really came into his own as a furniture designer with his renowned range of custom-made furniture inspired by the New York skyline and the skyscrapers that soared above his New York gallery. Typical Frankl “skyscraper” designs, which frequently evoke the pure lines found in the work of the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian, include tall, stepped chests of drawers, cabinets, and bookcases boasting an architectonic, rectilinear form. They were made from oak or California redwood and were sometimes
“Skyscraper” chest This rare Paul Frankl chest is asymmetrical, with long and short drawers, a single cabinet, a pull-out enamelled shelf in red and black, and geometrically shaped brass pulls.

Low Countries Early 19th Century Antique Furniture

THE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM did not formally exist until 1831. Indeed, in October 1797, after the Treaty of Campo Formic, the region was annexed to France. As a result, the furniture produced there in the early 19th century scarcely differs from the French Empire style. Although the province was struggling economically, those with sufficient financial means ordered their furniture directly from Paris. After 1831, as elsewhere, a series of historical revival styles dominated Belgian furniture design.
The situation in the Netherlands was slightly different, partly because of antagonism towards the French occupation. After the Battle of Jena in 1806, Napoleon gave his brother Louis the throne of the Netherlands. As in Italy, the Empire style was introduced directly by the Emperor’s family.
INNOVATION
In 1808, the new King ordered that the 17th-century town hall of Amsterdam be refurbished as a Royal residence and had a suite of principal rooms built in the fashionable Empire style. Most of the furniture was supplied to the new French overlords by loyal Dutch craftsmen, including the talented Carel Breytspraak, the son of a German cabinet-maker, who had matriculated to the Amsterdam guild in 1795. His furniture is heavily influenced by the severe Classicism of Percier and Fontaine (see pp.200-01), but demonstrates idiosyncratic touches, such as applied mouldings around drawers or the use of typically
Dutch tapering feet. He also frequently used canted pilasters on case furniture to reduce the sense of bulk. Much of the seating supplied for the new Royal palace was upholstered by Joseph Cuel, including a scrolling day bed commissioned for the bedroom of Queen Hortense.
TRADITION
The Empire style remained popular even after Waterloo, so when King William I re-decorated the State apartments of the palace in The Hague, they were conceived in a Napoleonic style.
One of the most important suppliers to the palace was Nordanus, a local cabinet-maker. In 1818, he provided numerous mahogany pieces, some of which were veneered with floral marquetry. Local motifs, such as the fluted friezes and corner chamfering characteristic of 18th-century Neoclassical Dutch pieces, occur on much Dutch Empire furniture.
Classical features still persisted in the Low Countries into the second quarter of the 19th century and, as elsewhere in Europe, furniture was frequently made from light woods, particularly maple or burr-walnut, and was often influenced by both British furniture and the German Biedermeier style. Furniture workshops also became increasingly mechanized as the century progressed.
The Salon de Boiserie, Amsterdam Almost all of the painted panelling in this room is decorated with lavishly carved gilding. The room was designed by architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine.
DUTCH DINING CHAIR
This elm dining chair has a panelled top rail of joined construction with tapering sides. The felt upholstered seat has brass studding and is raised on a plain seat rail above turned and tapering legs. Early 19th century.
BELGIAN FAUTEUILS
The top rails of these Neoclassical, laminated, black-painted armchairs are decorated in gilt with central twin putti flanking a lyre in husk-decorated borders. The downcurved arms end in gilt ball finials and are supported by gilt cornucopias headed by leaf tips. The inverted, U-shaped legs of each chair have gilt-metal leaf-tip sabots. Each chair is stamped “Chapuis”. Early 19th century.

DUTCH CARD TABLE
The folding top of this walnut table has rounded corners and sits above a rectangular panelled frieze. The table top stands on square-section, tapering legs with gilt-metal feet. The table is decorated throughout with floral marquetry typical of the Low Countries. Early 19th century.

LINEN PRESS
This mahogany and rosewood cabinet has two doors crowned by a moulded and shaped cornice with a domed pediment and central cartouche. The lower section has a bombe base with three long drawers and claw-andball feet. Early 19th century.

The front of this rectilinear 11,111o)~,,Iuy cabinet contains one dummy drawer flanked by two true drawers with a cupboard enclosed by double doors below. The corner colonettes are carved with tasselled drapery and have Egyptian -style brass mummy’s-heads and foot terminals. The case stands on short, tapering legs with toupie feet. c.1805. H:99(-,m (391n); W.,120cln (471,in); D:59crn (23in). TNH
The square, tapering legs terminate in toupie feet,
The veneers are plain and well-figured.
The doors are decorated with a brass, geometric pattern.

DUTCH CABINET
The top section of this mahogany linen press has a pediment crest above a pair of cupboard doors, which open to reveal three shelves and three aligned drawers. The lower section of the press has two short over two long drawers and is raised on rectangular feet. The linen press is relief-carved with Neoclassical motifs. Early 19th century.

19TH CENTURY GERMANY EMPIRE FURNITURE

ROYAL INFLUENCES
It was the Bonapartes themselves who really made Empire furniture fashionable in Germany. The Emperor’s brother, Jerome Bonaparte, became King of Westphalia in 1810, and he furnished the Schloss Wilhelmshohe with Empire-style pieces. These included pieces ordered from Georges Jacob-Desmalter (see p.201), and an imposing desk which was decorated with marble reliefs designed by
Friedrich Wichmann. In 1806, Napoleon had a suite of Empire furniture made for his Resident at Wurzburg, Franconia. These pieces were inspired by the work of French architects Percier and Fontaine, whose work Napoleon favoured. Their ISO] pattern book, Recueil de decorations interieurs comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a l`ameublement, was well received and highly influential in Germany, inspiring local craftsmen to produce their own publications.
WHEN NAPOLEON BONAPARTE became
ruler of Germany in 1806 he brought the Empire style to the region. Germany and Austria retained
close stylistic links with France, as many German
craftsmen trained and worked in Paris, and became familiar with the Empire style. The grand, Classical motifs
used in Empire style furniture, including eagles, mythical creatures, laurel
Gift bronze embellishes the interior fittings.
VIENNESE SECRETAIRE
This exquisite secretaire is made of fruitwood and mahogany. It has a lyre-shaped case which is decorated with partial inlay and gilding. The case has a single arched pediment, flanked on either side by gilded Classical figures. A rectangular, fall-front writing surface opens to reveal a fitted interior with an
arrangement of drawers and arched compartments, luxuriously decorated with gilt bronze. The lower section of the secretaire consists of two graduated drawers which are decorated to give the appearance of the strings of a lyre. The whole piece is raised on a rectangular plinth which is supported on carved paw feet. c.1807.
Fall-front writing surface
The body of the desk is modelled on a lyre.
The applied bronze decoration includes gilded stars and lion’s heads.
A rectangular plinth supports the piece.
Carved paw feet
VIENNESE GUERIDON
This mahogany-veneered and partially carved gueridon has an overhanging table top with a gilt-edged round frieze below. The three tapering legs are topped by lions’ heads and terminate in a tripartite base with paw feet. c.1810
BEECHWOOD CHAIR
This chair has a scrolled back and rose-coloured upholstery on both the back and seat. The chair has tapering front legs and cabriole back legs. The design is attributed to Leo von Klenze and the chair is thought to have come from the Resident in Munich. c.1818.
GERMAN INTERPRETATIONS German furniture was often larger and grander than its French Empire equivalents. Locally-produced pieces tended to have heavy columns and be rigidly symmetrical.
Empire furniture was predominantly a style for the nobility and was soon adopted by the rulers of the monarchies and princedoms that made up the German Confederation after the Vienna Congress in 1815. These rulers showed off their power by building new castles or by lavishly refurbishing existing ones, and the exuberant interiors of the palaces were designed in the Empire style.
Anterooms and throne rooms were furnished with gilded Empire pieces. Gifted court cabinet-makers produced various ensembles with matching sofa tables and console tables based on French designs or adapted from the fashion magazines that were popular at the time. Private rooms were furnished with mahogany pieces ornamented with gilt-bronze mounts. Decorative motifs were influenced by those of ancient Egypt.
Seating furniture was also directly inspired by the designs of the ancient world. The influence of the Greek Klismos chair, for example, can be seen in the chairs designed by Leo von
Klenze, who worked for the Bavarian King Ludwig I in Munich and whose Neoclassical buildings form much of the city of Munich today.
VIENNESE DESIGN
Vienna was a leading centre for the production of furniture. It was here that some of the most inventive designs were developed, including the lyre-secretaire, which often took on unusual shapes. Unlike the designers and craftsmen working in the German
states, Viennese designers favoured the striking contrast of ebonized wood and gilt bronze and created finely cast and chased gilt bronze mounts that equalled the work of French craftsmen.
One of the most gifted Viennese cabinet-makers was Josef Ulrich Danhauser. He ran the first Viennese furniture manufacturers, from 1804 until his death in 1829, and made his name by decorating his furniture with wood paste moulded to look like expensive bronzes.
This table has a rectangular top with rounded corners, which rests above a single frieze drawer. The piece is raised on sharply tapering, square-section legs. c.1810. H:77crn
AUSTRIAN CHERRY WOOD TABLE
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL (1781-1841)
THE MOST INFLUENTIAL GERMAN MASTER-BUILDER OF THE EARLY 19th CENTURY,
SCHINKEI_ WAS ALSO A CITY PLANNER AND ARTIST, AND A FAMOUS FURNITURE DESIGNER.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was born near Berlin, and originally trained as an architect as one of the first students at the new Berlin Bouakademie. He studied under the architect Friedrich Gilly, whose plans for a monument to Frederick the Great of Prussia greatly inspired the young Schinkel.
He travelled to France and Italy, and was influenced by the Classical-style architecture and furnishings he saw. His theory was that new designs should draw on the ancient world for inspiration, rather than slavishly recreate it. On his return to Germany, he worked for the Prussian state, including working as a
stage designer for the National Theatre.
One of Schinkels earliest works was a bed with bedside table, designed for Queen Louise for the Charlottenburg castle in Berlin. His use of light-coloured veneers anticipated the Biedermeier style (see pp.216-17). He was not
afraid to experiment with shape and created pieces designed for specific places within a room. Typical Schinkel designs are for architectural secretaires and comfortable armchairs. His publication Vorbilder fur Fabrihanten and Handwerker (Role Models for Makers and Craftsmen) in 1835 had a widespread influence. In later years, Schinkels work drew less on the
Neoclassical style, and more on the designs of the Renaissance.
Schinkel armchair This generously upholstered armchair has a curvaceous frame with a high backrest and is decorated with motifs from the ancient world.
Schinkel in Naples This oil painting, by Franz Louis Catel, shows Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Naples in 1824 during his second Italian journey. 1824
This rectilinear commode is made from mahogany veneered with maple. It has canted corners and three drawers with ebony stringing. The commode is supported on square, tapering legs. Early 19th century.

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EARLY 19TH CENTURY REGENCY BRITAIN FURNITURE

THE REGENCY WAS a clearly defined
period in British history From 1811 to 1820, the Prince of Wales, who later became George IV, ruled instead of his father, who was suffering from porphyria – a form of madness. However, as a furniture style, Regency has come to embrace a wider time frame, from the 1790s to the third decade of the 19th century.
Reflecting the exuberant tastes of the Regent himself, the period begins with his commission of the Neoclassical architect Henry Holland for his London home, Carlton House, in the 1780s, and concludes with the exotic, Oriental confection that is John Nash’s
Brighton Pavilion, remodelled for the Prince of Wales between 1815 and 1823. George, the Prince Regent, came to dominate taste in the early 19th century. He and his circle drew on a diverse group of talented architects and artisans, often trained in France, many of whom had worked on Carlton House. These included the architect, Charles Heathcote Tatham, the decorators and cabinet-makers, Morel and Hughes, and the clock-maker, Benjamin Vulliamy.
FURNITURE STYLE
Regency furniture is often symmetrical with clean, rectilinear lines. As such, it was inspired by French Empire furniture and the simple late 18th-century furniture designs of Thomas Sheraton. Large surfaces were often veneered in highly figured rosewood and then decorated with gilt-brass mounts of ancient motifs, such as rosettes, paterae, laurels, and anthemia. The Liverpool cabinet-
maker George Bullock is best known for his use of patterned surfaces; he frequently balanced English timbers, especially oak, with a riot of border patterns featuring stylized flower-heads, lotus leaves, and dot motifs.
The strict Neoclassical taste found its most archaeological expression in the designs of Thomas Hope, which he published in 1807. Not only had he plundered ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome for decorative ideas, but he also attempted to recreate ancient furniture and interiors. Probably the most
typical furniture of this type is the rounded klismos chair – first known to have been produced in ancient Greece
– which has back stiles that rise from outswept sabre legs to support an almost semi-circular back.
During this period, a wide variety of side cabinets of diverse outlines came to dominate the wall space in drawing rooms, replacing the use of commodes. In the dining room, a similar role was performed by the popular sideboard and chiffonier.
ECLECTICISM
It would be a mistake, however, to see the Regency as simply a curvaceous and light Neoclassical style. It was characterized by endless variety, a freedom of forms, and an eclectic
ornamental vocabulary. George Smith, who published a pattern book the year after Hope, reinterpreted his cold, academic designs by applying Neoclassical motifs to French Empire models that also included Gothic-and Chinese-inspired furniture. Indeed, exotic forms and materials became the hallmark of Regency taste. Smith popularized Hope’s designs in his pattern book, introducing them to a wider public.
Smith inspired impressive-looking furniture, with boldly carved leopard’s masks or large lion’s-paw feet, which anticipated the slightly heavier furniture of the 1820s and 30s.

The front rail and highly scrolled ends are inlaid with trailing foliage and flowers, terminating in floral paterae.
The seat rail is inlaid with a trailing brass foliate motif.
The design of the chaise longue is influenced by the contemporary French form, the meridjenne - a type of sofa with scrolled ends, one higher than the other.
Brass inlay detail
CHAISE LONGUE
This elegant Regency chaise longue is made of rosewood and is profusely inlaid throughout with brass inlay in a foliate design. The frame has a sweeping back rail which is centred with a scrolled hand grip, and has highly decorative
scrolled end supports. The generously padded seat and arms are supported on a rectilinear front rail decorated with a foliate motif. The piece stands on outswept sabre legs which terminate in lion’s-paw feet on casters.
Sabre legs terminate in lion’s paw feet and casters.
SMALL CENTRE TABLE
The surface of this tilt-top table has a painted scene within a laburnum veneer border. It is supported on a rosewood-veneered stem, on a base with scrolled, ribbed feet on brass casters. Early 19th century
MAHOGANY STOOL
This Regency mahogany stool has a gently shaped rectangular seat with scrolled ends and light carving on the surface. It is supported on an X-frame base with simple, carved decoration and stretchers. c.1810.
This mahogany writing table has a three-quarter brass gallery and a central, pull-out insert. There are six drawers behind a lift-up flap, two drawers on either side, and two in the frieze, supported on slender, turned legs. c.1800.
LIBRARY TABLE
The rectangular top of this rosewood library table is inlaid with a Greek-key border in satinwood and ebony. The frieze has a central pierced ormolu palmette and two drawers. The bowed legs are headed by gilt lion’s heads and
terminate in lion’s-paw feet, joined by a shaped stretcher. c.1810.