Posts Tagged ‘imperial’

Globes
Pair of early nineteenth-century mahogany library globes by Newton, published in 1838 and 1836. The tripod frames with out-scrolled legs ending in brass castors, 3 ft 8 in high        780 0
Large pair of terrestrial and celestial globes by Newton; published 25 March 1875. Supported in mahogany frames on triple curving legs 205 0
Pair of terrestrial and celestial globes in turned stands by James
Wyld, Charing Cross East; published 1847 185 0
Knife Boxes
A pair of mahogany urn-shaped knife boxes, stamped W. Johnston, with domed lids and bodies inlaid with flowers and stripes, 2 ft 5 in high 115 0
Sheraton  inlaid  mahogany serpentine-fronted knife box in
original condition 32 0
Mirrors—Mantel
Empire-style giltwood overmantel with triple mirrored panels
and decorated with classical figures 105 0
Rectangular mantel mirror in a giltwood frame carved with
acanthus and shell motifs, 31 in by 25 in 60 0
Mirrors—Toilet or Dressing
Sheraton serpentine-fronted box-frame toilet mirror fitted with
two drawers, 17 in wide 36 0
Sheraton box-frame shield-shape toilet mirror with two drawers,
18 in wide 30 0
Mahogany box-frame toilet mirror with three drawers, 15 in
wide 15 0
Edwardian   mahogany   box-frame   toilet  mirror   with three
drawers to base, 22 in wide 9 0
Mirrors—Wall
Pair of Chinese-Chippendale giltwood girandoles of rococo outline mounted with phoenix-birds and clusters of flowers from which issue two scrolled candle branches. The base enriched with acorns and oak leaves, 38

in high 650 0
Mid-Georgian wall glass in a giltwood frame carved with scrolls
and foliage and pierced, 44 in high 200 0
Chippendale mahogany mirror with gilt gesso beading
George IV convex mirror in a gilt frame enriched with spherical ornament with two scrolled candle sconces. Crested with a gilt eagle with outspread wings 76 0
Regency giltwood convex mirror with ball encrusted moulded
frame and ebonised slip, 1 ft 11 in diameter 15 0
Settees, Couches and Chaise Longues
Small carved mahogany sofa, the arched back carved with
rococo motifs. Curved arms, carved seat rail and cabriole legs        135 0
some auction room prices ‘. 1968-69
Decorated satinwood cane-panelled settee with loose seat
cushion, 4 ft 4 in George III painted settee with flat rectangular back and arms,
on turned legs. The arms, seat rails and legs are painted
with husks and flowers on a cream ground, 6 ft wide Early George III mahogany settee with stuffed back and arms.
The seat rail and legs are carved with blind fret, 5 ft 8 in
wide, (some restoration) Victorian rosewood frame serpentine-fronted chaise longue on
short cabriole legs
Settles
Eighteenth-century oak settle, 5 ft 5 in wide Seventeenth-century panelled oak settle with box seat, 4 ft 6 in wide
Seventeenth-century carved and panelled tall-back hall settle, 5 ft 7 in wide
Sideboards
Small nineteenth-century sideboard inlaid with ebony lines. Raised back, the centre drawer flanked by a cupboard and deep drawer. Supported on six turned and tapering legs, 4 ft 8 in wide
Hepplewhite-style mahogany serpentine sideboard of rich mellow colour, cross-banded in kingwood and fitted with a napery drawer and cellaret cupboards with octagonal gilt metal handles and supported on chamfered

legs, 7 ft 2 in wide
Georgian mahogany half-moon sideboard with two cupboards to the sides and two drawers with lion ring handles in the centre. Four tapering legs, 4 ft wide
Large mahogany Sheraton-style sideboard fitted with two long drawers and flanked by two deep drawers, supported on tapering legs
Regency Empire mahogany sideboard of architectural form, with a reverse breakfront with two shallow drawers to the centre flanked by deep cupboards. Supported by two curved and four simulated bamboo legs

terminating in brass paw feet. The whole mounted with ormolu and brass griffins, lions’ masks and sphinx and with Adams-style garlands and patera, 7 ft 6 in long
Late Georgian mahogany sideboard with shaped front, the top back rail fitted with three tambour slides. Two cupboards and a centre drawer to the base over a waved apron. Supported on six slender tapering legs, 5 ft

7 in wide
Early nineteenth-century mahogany bow-front sideboard on spiral-turned legs, 6 ft 1 in wide
Tables—Break fast
Regency mahogany breakfast table with brass stringing on the banded top and a turned pillar ending in a reeded quadruped, 5 ft by 3 ft 5 in
Georgian mahogany oval breakfast table with reeded edge and
Tables—Card
Chippendale mahogany card table with shaped folding top on boldly carved cabriole legs ending in claw and ball feet, 2 ft 7 in wide 370 0
Late George II mahogany card table with border of carved flowerheads and legs and frieze carved with blind fret, 3 ft wide 250 0
Regency card table in figured rosewood inlaid with brass flowers and leaves, the D-top on a ringed stem and quadruple brass capped legs, 3 ft wide 190 0
Sheraton mahogany card table inlaid with satinwood lines and
on tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 180 0
George II walnut card table with rectangular top on turned legs
with mantled knees and club feet, 3 ft wide 95 0
Regency mahogany card table with green baize interior on curving quadruple support, ending in brass claw feet. The top is cross-banded 65 0
Victorian mahogany card table with double Sap top supported
on four tapering shafts, terminating in curved legs 44 0
Tables—Centre
Regency painted centre tabic, the circular top simulating green marble, the border with brass mouldings hinged to a carved turned central support on a curved triangular base with lion’s paw feet, 4 ft diameter 120 0
Edwards and Roberts eboniscd centre table with ormolu beading on cluster column and quadruple base, 5 ft 6 in wide 38 0
Red Buhl shaped centre table with heavy ormolu mounts, two
drawers and on cabriole legs. (Poor condition) 11 0
Tables—Dining
Charles I oak dining table with a triple-plank top and the frieze carved with leaves and interlaced arcading, on column legs, 6 ft 5 in long by 2 ft 7 in wide 360 0
Large late George III mahogany dining table, the top richly carved with acanthus, ribbon motifs, satyr masks and a coat of arms. Supported on ten tapering spiral-twist legs with five loose leaves, 12 ft 4 in long 185 0
Georgian mahogany two pillar dining table with triple curving
legs ending in brass-capped feet 122 0
Georgian mahogany oval drop-leaf dining table on turned legs
and pad feet 75 0
Eighteenth-century mahogany oval drop-leaf cottage dining table
on taper legs with pad feet, 3 ft 6 in wide 44 0
Mahogany gadrooned oval dining table with cabriole legs and
claw and ball feet 40 0
Georgian mahogany drum library table with leather top and four real and four dummy drawers. On triple curving legs with brass-capped feet, 3 ft 3 in diameter 680 0
some auction room prices : 1968-69
George III mahogany library table fitted with seven drawers and dummy drawers with gilt metal lion ring handles, the top with gilt tooled green leather and the whole raised on a curved quadruple support with

brass-capped feet
Tables—Games and Sewing
Eighteenth-century mahogany, shaped folding top, games table on nutcracker frame with cabriole legs and claw and ball feet, 34 in wide
William IV games table with sliding and reversible top inlaid as a chess board opening to reveal a backgammon board with two drawers to the side. Central pillar supported on quadruple curving feet
Nineteenth-century mahogany sewing table with rising top and drawers below. The slender tapering legs ending in brass-capped feet
Tables—Gate-leg
George I elmwood gate-leg table, the oval top with flaps on
cabriole legs carved with scrolls and leaves and ending in
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 9 in wide Seventeenth-century oak oval gate-leg dining table with double
flaps supported on bobbin turned legs with plain cross
stretchers, 4 ft 9 in wide Late George II mahogany gate-leg table, the oval top with two
flaps, on unusual legs fluted and ending in paw feet, 3 ft 9 in
wide
Oak oval gate-leg table on turned underframe with drawer, 4 ft wide
Tables—Occasional
Late George II mahogany piecrust table with bird-cage support on fluted stem with carved legs and claw and ball feet, 2 ft 2 in diameter
Large mahogany piecrust tripod table with baluster stem and
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 5 in diameter Mahogany tripod table, the circular top with raised rim, on
cabriole feet, 1 ft 10 in diameter
Tables—Pembroke
Late Georgian mahogany oval Pembroke table with drawer, on
square tapering legs, 2 ft 7 in wide by 3 ft 6 in long Late Georgian mahogany Pembroke table painted with a floral
border and on turned and fluted legs Georgian mahogany Pembroke table with folding flaps and
single drawer, inlaid with satinwood lines and fan motifs, on
tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide
Tables—Refectory
Seventeenth-century oak refectory table of slender plain form, the base having square ends united by a single stretcher, 7 ft 3 in long
Oak refectory table on bulbous end supports with central
stretcher, 7 ft 7 in by 3 ft wide 130 0
An exceptionally long oak refectory table with triple curving
supports, 18 ft 6 in long, 3 ft 3 in wide 90 0
Tables—Side
Queen Anne banded walnut side table with two deep and two
shallow drawers on square legs, 3 ft 3 in wide 170 0
Chinese-Chippendale mahogany side table, the frieze carved with
blind fret. Moulded legs, 3 ft wide 88 0
Oak side table with drawer, on turned legs, 3 ft wide 64 0
Walnutwood side table with cabriole legs carved with acanthus
leaves 31 0
Tables—Sofa
George III satinwood sofa table cross-banded with acacia, fitted with two drawers and false drawers opposite on trestle supports with splayed curved feet and brass castors, 2 ft 10 in wide        750 0
Regency banded mahogany sofa table with tulipwood stringing with two drawers on end supports and central stretcher with brass claw feet, 5 ft 10 in extended 380 0
Late George III mahogany sofa table with two drawers in frieze and raised on flat trestle supports with out-curved legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 270 0
George III mahogany sofa table banded in rosewood and with two drawers. It has trestle supports with tripod splayed legs and brass feet, 3 ft wide 250 0
Tables—Sutherland
Mahogany Sutherland table on turned underframe, 2 ft 9 in
wide 42 0
Victorian walnut-veneered Sutherland table on turned supports,
2 ft 6 in wide 36 0
Tables—Tea
Regency mahogany tea table with folding top on a turned pillar and four curved legs, the whole inlaid with brass stringing, 3 ft wide 120 0
Late George II mahogany tea table, the top with a border of flowerheads and ribbon and the frieze and chamfered legs carved with Chinese blind fret, 3 ft wide 60 0
George III mahogany tea table with folding top, a drawer in
the frieze and square tapering legs, 3 ft 8 in wide 38 0
Tables—Wine
Hepplewhite mahogany wine table, the inlaid octagonal top
supported on triple concave curving legs 105 0
Victorian mahogany wine table on pillar and tripod base, 21 in
diameter 10 0
Tables—Writing
George III mahogany pedestal writing table, the gilt tooled leather top with three drawers at each side of the frieze and
the pedestals with cupboards and drawers at either end, 4 ft wide
Early eighteenth-century banded fruitwood writing table, fitted
with three drawers, a shaped apron and on cabriole legs with
pad feet, 2 ft 4 in wide Victorian lady’s mahogany writing table with two short drawers
on lyre end supports, 3 ft wide Carved mahogany writing table with fitted drawer, the top lined
with leather, on cabriole legs, 2 ft 5 in wide
Tallboys and Lowboys
George II walnut tallboy, the top with reeded and canted corners and three small and three long drawers. The base having three long drawers and bracket feet
Queen Anne small walnut tallboy of mellow colour, the upper chest fitted with two small and three long drawers over a brushing slide, and three long graduated drawers
William and Mary lowboy inlaid with scrolls and motifs. The top fitted with two small and two long drawers and two long drawers to the base, 4 ft 3 in high
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice and two small and three long drawers to the top and tliree long drawers to the base which is supported on bracket feet
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice, the top fitted with two small and three long drawers, the base with three long drawers and supported on bracket feet, 6 ft 1 in high
Waiters
Mid-Georgian mahogany dumb waiter with turned and carved columns supporting three trays. The whole on cabriole tripod feet, 4 ft high
George III mahogany dumb waiter with two revolving tiers and baluster centre on three curved and moulded legs and castor feet applied with roundels, 3 ft 2 in high
George II mahogany dumb waiter with three graduated revolving tiers and spiral fluting on turned central support. Plain cabriole legs, 3 ft 6 in high
Wardrobes
Mahogany breakfront wardrobe fitted with sliding trays, four
drawers and panelled cupboards Small Georgian mahogany wardrobe enclosed by two panelled
doors with three drawers in the base, 3 ft 9 in wide George III mahogany gents wardrobe with pierced swan-neck
cresting, a pair of doors banded in satinwood and two short
and two long drawers below, 7 ft high by 4 ft 4 in wide Regency mahogany wardrobe the upper part with sliding trays
with four drawers under on splay feet, 3 ft 11 in wide
Washstands
Late George III mahogany washstand, the top hinged and opening to form a back, the front with a pair of cupboard doors above one small drawer, on square splayed legs, 2 ft wide
Edwardian three-tier corner washstand with basin 18 0 George III mahogany corner washstand, the slender legs joined
by a stretcher with a drawer, 2 ft wide                                      14 0
Wine Coolers
Georgian inlaid mahogany sarcophagus wine cooler with lion
mask and ring handle on paw feet 65 0
Georgian mahogany octagonal wine cooler with lifting top and
short square moulded legs, 18 in wide 55 0

BOWL IN DARK RED GLASS, ENAMELLED AND GILT
Byzantine, i ith-t2th century A.D.Ht. 79 mm (3*13 in.)
Theophilus, describing ‘how the Greeks
embellish with Gold and Silver’, said ‘they
take the white, red and green glass, whicb
are used for enamels, and carefully grind
each one separately with water on a
porphyry stone. With them they paint
small flowers and scrolls . . .’. He went on
to describe the furnace in which they fired
window glass, including painted glass, and
specified that the glass be bedded down on
quick-lime. Vasari, who wrote an account
of the stained glass technique of Gugliel-
imo de Marcillat (d.1529) stressed that
‘this burning in of the colours requires the
greatest caution, for if the heat be too great
it will cause the glass to crack, and if
insufficient it will not fix the colours’. To
test the enamel, Theophilus suggested
that you should ’see if you can scratch off
the colour with your nail’. Glasses of the
type described by Theophilus are known,
dating from the 1 ith to the 12th centuries;
one of them is illustrated.
VASE WITH ENAMELLING AND GILDING
Syria, Ј.1320-30 A.D. Ht. 302 mm (11 88 in.)
(See also colour photograph 11)
Not until the 13th and 14th centuries was
the next high point in the history of
enamelling reached, with the great Islamic
mosque lamps and other vessels produced
in the near East, particularly in Syria.
Besides the weli-known lamps which
adorned Moslem holy places, the Syrian
enamellers decorated such objects as
footed bowls, sprinklers, globes, beakers
and long-necked bottles. The vase illus-
trated is decorated with golden arabesques
and fish motifs finely outlined in red. The
inscription round the widest point of the
vessel repeats the words ‘The Wise’
(referring to the God of Mohammed). The
medallions around the neck of the vase
probably contain the armorial symbol of
the nobleman who commissioned the
object. The glass itself is not clear and
colourless, for most of the Islamic glass of
that time is of a brownish or greenish tint,
often clouded with bubbles.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
In Islam the art of enamelling came to
maturity from the 13th century, the finest
work being done in Syria. The lamps in
Egyptian mosques exported from Syria
are the most famous examples of all the
Islamic enamelled glass. Strictly speaking,
these objects are lamp-holders or lanterns
rather than lamps, for they enclosed an
oil-vessel which provided the illumination.
They were suspended from the roof of the
mosque by chains which, when the roof
was high, passed through a glass globe or
ball, from where the chains radiated to the
handles of the lamp. Enamelled glass was
used for these lamps, not only for its
obvious decorative effect, but because the
Koran said, ‘God is the light of the
Heavens and the Earth: His light is as a
niche in which is a lamp, the lamp in a
glass, the glass as it were a glittering star’.
Many reproductions of mosque lamps
were made at the end of the 19th century.
Unfortunately, like the Romans, the Is-
lamic glass-making artists left no written
record of the craft which they practised
with such very great skill. It is not until
the 15th century that a contemporary
record of enamelling techniques is found,
but from that time, especially with the
advent of printing, there is no lack of
written evidence. Enamelling on glass was
a speciality of the Venetian glass-makers,
a technique which they developed during
the 15th century, probably reaching tech-
nical maturity by the middle of the
century. In all essentials their enamelling
technique was similar to that of the
Islamic artists, yet it would appear that the
Venetians independently re-invented en-
amelling on glass—possibly borrowing the
idea from the Italian worker in metal. By-
tradition the invention has been ascribed
to the glass-maker Angelo Baroviero.
Throughout the 15th century the coloured
glass the Venetians had invented—blue,
green, white, purple and turquoise—was
richly enamelled and gilded.
GOBLET IN  COLOURED GLASS
ENAMELLED DECORATION
Venice. Italy, late 15th 10 early 16th century
By the beginning of the 16th century the
fashion in Venice for coloured glass had
given way to a desire for clear colourless
glass. Enamelling, along with other forms
of decoration, was usually found on clear
glass specimens from this time, although
the clear metal was far less suited to the
technique. The pictorial work which had
been used so much on coloured glass soon
disappeared, and enamelling was restricted
to a few simple motifs. A favourite of these
was a form of scale pattern in bead-like
dots of enamelling and light gilding,
through which lines were scratched, al-
though simple bands of coloured dots were
sometimes the sole decoration of the piece.
Another familiar motif of the late 15th-
and early 16th-century glasses resembled
a lily-of-the-vallcy or a small fruit with a
calyx attached, as on the goblet illustrated.
This goblet also helps to show how the
Venetians combined their coloured and
clear glass in one vessel.
Although representational painting was no
longer the fashion by the beginning of the
16th century, a transitional phase is
represented by a series of glasses enamelled
with grotesque ornamentation built up
from patterns of flowers, leaves, animal
and human-like forms. Armorial glasses
were probably among the latest Venetian
work in the technique of enamelling. A
shield of arms or an emblem would be
added to the few simple decorative motifs
that were now in use on clear colourless
glass, and at their best, these were very
well drawn, as in the dish illustrated.
However, in some cases there is reason to
suspect that the shields were later addi-
tions. Venetian taste, now inclining to-
wards the new, clear colourless metal,
began to appreciate glass for its own sake
and to be interested more in its quality and
beauty of shape than in its added decora-
tion. By the middle of the 16th century the
technique of enamelling, apart from wares
made for export, had virtually passed out
of fashion in Italy.
beaker with enamelled decoration
Made in Venice for the German market, 1603
Ht. 267 mm (105 in.)
Reuhsadlerhumpen, pale green glass with
enamelled decoration
Bohemia, 1654. Ht. 200 mm (11-4 in.)
Although enamelling became unfashion-
able in Italy, it remained a favourite form
of decoration in Germany until the second
half of the 18th century. The earliest
enamelled glasses thai might have a claim
to being German are some cylindrical
beakers commonly bearing German arms,
but it is now thought that these were
ordered from Venice by German buyers.
The beaker illustrated, inscribed ‘Roccho
Grasl’, is a typical late example of the type.
The most productive enamelling work-
shops in the late 16th and early 17th
centuries were situated in Bohemia,
whence the craft was carried to Germany
by emigrant workmen. German enamel-
ling, with its bold colours, has the attrac-
tiveness of a peasant art, but the enamels
used were not of fine quality nor were the
drawings of any distinction. The glass
itself was relatively poor, and only a few
shapes were attempted: the tall Stangen-
glas, the cylindrical Humpen, jugs, beakers,
and screw-topped spirit flasks.
The subjects used by the German enam-
ellers for the most part belong to peasant
art. Gonventional portraits, simplified
landscapes, scenes of artisans at work,
guild processions, satirical subjects, alle-
gories and inscriptions, usually illiterate
and sometimes obscene, are common.
Biblical subjects, the Emperor and the
Seven Electors and the Reichsadler are also
depicted on these glasses. The Reichsadler
is the Imperial double-eagle, bearing on
its wings the arms with names of a fanciful
hierarchy of the Holy Roman Empire; the
arms are arranged in groups of four in the
so-called Quaternion system derived from
Schedel’s Wellkronik of 1483. They begin
with those of Rome and the three spiritual
Electors (Treves, Cologne, Mayence),
balanced by the four temporal ones
(Bavaria, Brandenburg, Saxony, Palatin-
ate), ending with four ‘Dorffer’ and four
‘Birg’. The Reichsadlerhumpen may have
had some contemporary significance, since
they originated during the strife of the
Thirty Years’ War. The Retchsadler and
the ‘Elector’ glasses remained popular for
a long period.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
In the guild regulations of the glass-
makers of Krcibitz in Bohemia (1669) one
of the tasks set the aspiring craftsman was
to ‘prepare with colours an Imperial
Eagle, with all its members, in one and a
half days’. This referred to the Reich-
sadlerhumpen, which most likely had to be
fired more than once, those enamels which
required a higher temperature being fired
before the ones which fluxed at a lower
heat In all essentials the contemporary
descriptions of enamelling agree with each
other, the cakes or beads of enamel being
pounded on marble or porphyry, [he
powder thus resulting being washed and
applied to the already annealed glass vessel
and the glass being carefully reheated so
that the enamels fused to it successfully. It
would seem that enamelled vessel-glass
began to be fired in special ‘muffle kilns’
rather than in the glass furnace itself by
the end of the 17th century. As in ordinary
coloured glass, metal oxides were used to
give the enamels their various colours.
‘SchwarzloT, or black enamelling on glass
was a Dutch invention originally used lor
the decoration of windows; it spread into
Northern Germany, and was developed b\
Johann Schaper in the third quarter ol the
17th century. Schaper was born at Ham-
burg in 1621, was at Nuremberg from
1655, at Ratisbon in 1664 and died in 1670.
Originally a painter of stained window-
glass, he was the first of the South German
llausmaler or independent artists, obtain-
ing undecorated glass and pottery and
decorating it to Ins own invention. I le used
copper oxide mixed with black enamel
pigment, painting this on to the glass ahd
then scratching his design through it with
a needle in the manner of the stained-glass
painter. He painted mainly in black, with
slight touches of red and gold. In the
beaker illustrated he used for inspiration
an engraving of a gypsy procession by
Jacques Callot (1592-1635; Callot’s work,
depicting scenes of Italian life with fan-
tastic caricature, was very popular in the
17th and 18th centuries).
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
Johann Schaper gained some followers,
one of whom, like himself, was a window-
glass painter. This was Johann Ludwig
Paber, who also painted faience. Herman
Benckcrtt of Frankfort-on-Main was an-
other of Schapers known followers. The
Humpen illustrated is a remarkably fine
example of the Schwarzlot technique,
probably the work of one of Schaper’s
imitators. The scene shows a man being
pushed into a pigsty by a laughing and
gesticulating crowd—presumably for
drunkenness, for the Latin inscription on
the reverse is a diatribe against drinking.
After 1700 the Schwarzlot technique was
carried on in Bohemia and Silesia by
independent decorators. Though they
were using the same medium, in style and
subject their work was very different.
They concentrated on landscapes, hunting
scenes, warriors and scenes from peasant
life, then replaced these by scroll-and-
strap-work, Chinese figures, putti and
fantastic animals.
In Spain a distinct style of enamelling
glass emerged in the late 15th, 16th and
early 17th centuries. It originated in
Barcelona, where glass-makers were in
considerable rivalry with Venice towards
the end of the 15th century. The most
important product of the Barcelona crafts-
men was their enamelled ware, which
surprisingly showed a complete inde-
pendence of Venetian models. The colours
they used for their enamels were notably a
light yellowish-green, in combination with
yellow, white and lavender blue, and
occasionally they used touches of black,
red and brown. Their style of enamelling
has been described as primitive, but also
as powerful in design. The motifs they
used were Near-Eastern in feeling, such as
stylised trees, arabesque foliage, running
animals and pairs of birds. Occasionally,
figures in 16th-century European costume
were used. The vase illustrated was a
favourite shape, showing a typical motif
resembling a small fruit with calyx attached
which was also found on Venetian glass.
Enamelled decoration on glass, though
familiar on the Continent from the 15th
century onwards, was apparently never
attempted in England until the middle of
the 18th century. Two types of enamelling
emerged in the third quarter of the 18th
century, one practised by the Beilby
family of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the
other practised on the opaque white glass
of the period (see Opaque White Glass).
William Beilby (1740-1819) and his sister
Mary (1749-97) were recorded by Thomas
Bewick, the wood-engraver, to have ‘had
constant employment of enamel-painting
of glass’. William had learned the art of
enamelling in Birmingham, and proceeded
to enamel glasses from about 1762. At
what point Mary joined him in his work is
not known, for their glasses are signed
simply ‘Beilby’. Their brother Ralph
Beilby (1743—1817), to whom Thomas
Bewick was apprenticed, may have had
some influence on their work through his
knowledge of heraldic engraving.
The first Beilby enamelled work was of an
heraldic nature, in both white and coloured
enamel on glasses or goblets with ogee or
bucket-shaped bowls. The Beilbys’ style
changed about 1774, and subjects such as
scenes of hunting, fishing and shooting,
pastoral scenes including ruins, and Chin-
ese subjects appeared, the shapes of the
glasses becoming more diverse. Colours
were not always used on these glasses, and
the subjects were often rendered in white
monochrome, sometimes with a faint tint
of blue or pink. Occasionally they followed
the motifs found on engraved glasses of the
period, such as hops, barley and the flower-
ing vine. Beilby glasses more often than
not have an opaque white enamel-twist
stem. Thomas Bewick became attached to
Mary Beilby, who unfortunately in her
early twenties suffered a paralytic stroke.
The brother and sister left Newcastle-on-
Tyne after the death of their mother in
1778, and went to Fife in Scotland, where
apparently they did not continue their
work.
Hi. 105 mm (4-15 in.)
BEAKER WITH CUTTING, GILDING AND
ENAMEL PAINTING
By Anton kothgasser, Vienna, Austria, r.1825
Hi. 115 mm (4-5 in.)
Many drinking and souvenir glasses with
translucent enamelling still exist which
were decorated by Samuel Mohn (horn
1762 in Weissenfels, died 1815 in Dresden)
and his son, Gottlob Samuel Mohn (born
1789 in Weissenfels and died 1825 in
Vienna). Their chief technical innovation
was the preparation of transparent enam-
els, in contrast with the heavy opaque
enamels used particularly in the 16th and
17th centuries. Samuel Mohn had pre-
viously been a painter of silhouettes on
porcelain. His son, who secured the
patronage of the Emperor, painted sil-
houettes on glass tumblers, as well as views
and allegorical figure-subjects. The Mohns
were among the first to cater for the market
for mementoes caused by the revival of
travel for its own sake, after the finish of
the Napoleonic wars. They worked on a
large scale, helped by apprentices, and
using transfer printing for outlines to
speed up the process, but the delicacy of
their paintings, usually on glasses in the
Ranfthecher form, makes these a worthy
item for collectors.
The Mohns’ discovery of transparent
enamels was further improved by a Vien-
nese porcelain and glass decorator, Anton
Kothgasser (1769-1851). He was a painter
from the Imperial Porcelain Factory, who
started working on stained glass with
Gottlob Mohn. He managed to make his
colours more brilliant than the Mohns’,
and made full use of yellow stain, or the
stain made from a compound of silver, as
used on stained glass windows. His glasses
are usually waistcd, with a heavy cut base
and sometimes lavishly gilt, as in the one
illustrated. Views of towns, portraits,
genre scenes and flowers, sometimes
copied, are featured in his work. His
glasses have been described as the finest
examples of the Viennese Biedermewr
style. Kothgasser and the Mohns had
many pupils and many imitators. In the-
same movement was Franz Anton Siebel
(1777-1842) of Lichtenfels in Upper
Franconia.
PERFUME BOTTLE IN COLOURLESS GLASS,
ENAMELLED AND GILT
Emile Galle, France, dated 1880
I li 157 mm (613 in.)
‘CROWN MILANO’ EWER WITH ROPE HANDLE
Ml. Washington Glass Company, U.S.A.
Ht. 254 mm (10 in.)
Emile Galle (1846 1904) the great French
glass-maker, is less well-known for his
enamelled work than for his work in the
field of cameo glass. Yet he was an expert
in the art of enamelling, and showed this
gift in his first major exhibition in Paris in
1878. It was there that he established his
reputation as an inventive and original
glass artist, using—among other tech-
niques—enamelled decoration on triple-
cased glass with gold leaf insertions. At the
exhibition in Paris in 1884 he showed
examples of clear colourless glass decorated
with enamelling, cutting and engraving.
At the 1889 Exhibition in Paris he showed
his finest works. His colours had taken on
a new softness, and a fresh note of lyricism
could be sensed in his work. The decisive
factor in his work seems to have been
Japanese art, and after 1889 he developed
to maturity the ‘nature-style’ that was to
epitomise his thoughts and ideas and was
to bring him his greatest fame. The
singular lyricism ol his work can be seen in
the enamelled perfume bottle illustrated.
An elegant painted and enamelled glass-
ware was produced by the Mt. Washington
Glass Company, New Bedford, Mass.,
towards the end of the 19th century. It was
first called ‘Albertine’, though a ware that
was the same in texture, shape and
decoration was advertised more cxotically
as ‘Crown Milano’ in about 1890. Unless
the perishable paper label survives, ‘Al-
bertine’ cannot be differentiated from
unmarked ‘Crown Milano’. Frederick S.
Shirley and Albert Steffin of that firm were
issued with a patent in 1886 for a means of
decorating an opal glassware. The articles,
which had a convex ribbed body, were
treated as follows: a perforated corrugated
stencil was laid against them; pulverised
carbon was dusted against this, which left
a design for the enameller to follow when
the stencil was taken away, so that there
was no distortion in the finished product.
When ‘Crown Milano’ was made, a blank
in white opal glass was shaped by free-
blowing, moulding or press-moulding.

Antiques: Furniture, Porcelain, Silver, Clocks Recently Featured at Antcollectors (1)

South African Furniture

SOUTH AFRICA
THE DISTINCTIVE FURNITURE of the
Cape of Good Hope reflected the styles of the two major colonial powers in the area: Britain and the Netherlands. The various struggles in Europe had also been played out in the colonies, but by 1800 British dominance was assured. In 1820, more British settlers established themselves further up the East coast. The Cape’s position at the mid-point of the trading routes between Europe and the Far East also gave rise to influences from such places as Batavia.
A wide range of furniture was made in the Cape both for the metropolitan homes of Cape Town and the famous white-painted and gabled homesteads of the vineyards. Their forms and motifs were often simplified versions of those in Europe. A slight delay is generally considered when dating colonial furniture. The Empire style, omnipresent in Europe, appears to have had little influence in the Cape, except maybe in an increased linearity of design. Its preference for highly polished timber and expensive gilt-bronze mounts did not suit the local traditions, life styles, or materials.
The most recognizable aspect of South African furniture is the use of local timbers, which unlike mahogany, do not tend to take a glass-like polish to their surfaces. Most characteristic is the combined and contrasting use of stinkwood and yellowwood.
COLONIAL CHAIRS
A wide variety of different chairs were made in the early 19th century. Some so-called “Adam” chairs from the early
Painting in oil on wood This shows typical wall decoration, curtains, and furniture styles of the early 19th century. All the furniture, with the exception of the writing bureau, was made according to the prevalent Neoclassical style. 1815. PRA
years of the century survive at Groot Constantin. With their upholstered, oval back-panels, this type is luxurious and rare. Far more common are
Sheraton and Neoclassical chairs —the latter with pierced vertical splats, caned or thonged (animal hide strips) seats, and tapering, square-section legs that were sometimes fluted. The Sheraton variety, introduced around 1810, had a wide top rail, generally above a second horizontal bar splat and square seat. Later the front leg was either turned or ring-turned. More provincial chairs, the tulbagh, of simplified box-like form, survived into this period. These shapes are also evident on the rusbank, a Cape type of settee-cum-settle with a chair-back.
TABLES AND CUPBOARDS
D-end dining tables and gateleg tables were also produced during these years. Different timbers were sometimes used for the top, frieze, and legs, which were often tapered and fluted like other chairs of the period. Chests of drawers in the Sheraton style, which were popular in Britain, seem to have been relatively rare in the Cape; South African cabinets tended to favour earlier serpentine lines. However, the monumental armoires, corner-cupboards, and wardrobes, so typical of high-production Cape furniture in the 18th century, seem to have been produced into the early years of the next century.

This round, stinkwood table has a moulded edge above a plain apron with a beaded edge. The table top is supported on four ring-turned, tapering legs terminating in turned feet. 1830-40.
Thonged seat
NORTH EASTERN CAPE CHAIR
The top rail of this stinkwood chair is inlaid in yellowwood with simple geometric motifs, which are repeated in the two additional back rails. The chair has simple, carved uprights and similarly carved legs joined by an H-stretcher. One of a pair. 1830-40.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE CABINET
This low cabinet is made from amboyna, stinkwood, and satinwood. It has a rectangular top, shaped at the front above two bowed
doors, divided by a fluted pilaster. The canted corners of the cabinet are also fluted and are raised on claw-and-ball feet. Early 19th century.

SOUTH WESTERN CAPE HALF-MOON TABLES
These two half-moon tables, which can be placed together to make one round table, have table tops and aprons made from yellowwood, and square-section, tapering legs made from the darker stinkwood with yellowwood inlay. The aprons have a simple moulded edge with stinkwood beading. Сupboard is of simple rectilinear form and has a moulded rectangular top above two panelled doors. The panels have chamfered edges and are set within an additional, rectangular frame. The case has a shaped apron and stands on shaped, bracket feet. I820 30.
The two panelled doors
have chamfered edges set in a rectangular frame.
A shaped apron
rests above shaped bracket feel.
EASTERN CAPE CUPBOARD
CAPE TOWN TEA TABLE
The rectangular top of this satinwood and stinkwood tea table sits above a plain apron. The table is supported on square-section, tapering legs.

SOUTH AFRICA 227
WESTERN CAPE SETTEE
This stinkwood settee has a carved top rail above a seat back comprising a series of evenly spaced pierced panels – ten in total - and gently outswept arms with simple scroll terminals. The settee is supported on tapering, square-section legs joined by H-stretchers. c.1800.

EARLY 19TH CENTURY ITALIAN FURNITURE.

LIKE MANY OTHER European states,
the majority of the Italian states and kingdoms followed the lead of Paris. The greatest French-style furniture and interiors were created during the period of Napoleonic patronage, in the first decade of the 19th century. The French Emperor installed his brothers as rulers in Italy: Joseph became King of Naples and Lucian became Prince of Canino. Napoleon’s sisters also created significant interiors in the area: Elisa Baciocchi in Lucca and Florence, Pauline Borghese in Rome, and Caroline Murat in Naples. But it was not just aristocratic patrons who commissioned the cabinet-makers: one of the period’s characteristics was the emergence of middle-class buyers. This widening of the market coincided with the beginnings of mechanization and the gradual organization of the workshop – a trend that continued throughout the 19th century.
ITALIAN EMPIRE
In some ways, the French Empire style did not suit Italian furniture-makers. Its emphasis on large expanses of high-quality timber was a significant problem in an area where this was difficult to find. Also, its rectilinear forms and strict, sober lines seemed antithetical to a furniture tradition that favoured sculptural qualities. However,
symmetry and balance, with few curves and little ornament apart from Neoclassical gilt-bronze mounts, eventually dominated Italian furniture production. To overcome the problem of poor-quality timber, many pieces were painted – white, pale blue, and eau-de-nil were popular colours. Classical architectural forms were favoured, along with motifs from Imperial Rome, such as trophies of instruments or weapons, fasces (banded rods), laurel wreaths, and antique lamps.
FRENCH IMPORTS
The Grand Duchess of Tuscany (one of Napoleon’s sisters) actually brought French ebenistes to Florence to establish workshops and impart their skills and techniques to the Italians. Mounts were also imported from France. Consequently, it is almost impossible to differentiate between the French Empire furniture in the Palazzo Pitti in Florence and the Italian variants. The Empire style remained in fashion after 1815, sometimes combined with French Restauration styles, but the use of mahogany declined in favour of walnut or lighter-coloured timber.
During this period, Italy was made up of a patchwork of small states and kingdoms, dominated by Austro-Hungary in the north. Regional diversity was, therefore, far greater than in Britain or France, and much of the furniture produced echoes the traditions for which they are famous: Classical in Rome, Baroque in Florence, and Rococo in Venice. Lombardy produced some of the greatest innovators of the era, particularly Giocondo Albertolli, who trained at the Accademia di Brera and who published his influential Corso
elementare d’ornamenti architettonici in 1805.
The study of Umberto I This shows a room in the Palazzo Pitti in Florence. Under Elisa Baciocchi, Napoleon’s sister and Grand Duchess of Tuscany, several rooms in the palace were redecorated to reflect Paris fashions.
CARVED MIRROR
This carved and gilded mirror frame is decorated with masks of grotesques at the corners. The pediment is richly decorated with baskets -overflowing with flowers. c.1800.
MURANO MIRROR
This mirror has an applied crystal pediment and a frame with C- and S-scrolls at the corners. The oval mirror is surrounded by mirror sections engraved with leaves and divided with moulding. Early 19th century.
GILTWOOD SIDE CHAIR
two Neoclassical giltwood side chairs
part of a set of six Cardinal Fesch chairs; Fesch. a Corsican cardinal, became French ambassador to Rome in 1804. Each chair has a richly carved, domed back depicting a pair of
carved griffins above a stylized serpentine floral carving on a punched ground. The upright back supports are in the form of fluted pilasters with a frieze of running husks. The padded seats have fluted seat rails and are raised on gilded lion’s-paw legs. c.1810.
MAGGIOLINI
THE MOST FAMOUS NEOCTASSICAL FURNITURE-MAKER OF THE
LATE 18TH AND EARLY 19TH СENTURY, MAGGIOLINI’S NAME
IS ASSOCIATED WITH A PARTICULAR STYLE OF MARQUETRY.
Giuseppe Maggiolini (1738-1814) made furniture that was austere, boxy, and unpretentious in form, with no carving and few mounts. However, its characteristic pictorial marquetry lent his work a brilliant opulence. Maggiolini used many different types and colours of timber to create his marquetry pictures, shunning Stains, artificial colouring, and other tricks to achieve decorative effects. In the tradition of Piranesi and, more recently, the ornamental designer and interior decorator, Giocondo Albertolli, he produced marquetry trophies, still lifes, Chinoiserie and caprici. As a result, his name is used to refer to all work of this type, whether produced in his workshop or not.
Maggiolini started his career as a carpenter in a Cistercian monastery, where he established his first workshop in 1771. He later founded a second workshop in Milan, which was inherited by his son, Carlo Francesco, and Cherubino Mezzanzanica. He crafted some of his most brilliant furniture for the Archduke
Ferdinand of Austria, who was the Governor General of Lombardy, and the King of Poland was also one of his clients.
In keeping with the tastes of his age, Maggiolini’s furniture is simple in design and follows late 18th-century French prototypes. Its defining difference is the intricate marquetry, in Italy this had a long tradition stretching back to Renaissance intarsia works.
Louis XVI commode This rectilinear, marble-topped piece, from the studio of Guiseppe Maggiolini in Milan, is made from rosewood and several exotic woods with inlays of Classical figures in medallions and interlacing festoons. The commode has three drawers with bronze mounts and is supported on square, tapering legs. c.1800.
The frieze drawer is inlaid with a row of interlaced festoons.
The top is not made of marble, unlike French commodes.
The two case drawers are inlaid sans traverse with a symmetrical diagonal pattern centred by a medallion containing Classical figures.
The complicated marquetry patterns are typical of Maggiolim’s work.
ARMCHAIR AUX TETES DE LION
This mahogany armchair has a gently curved top rail, an X-frame back, and armrests terminating in carved and gilded lions’ heads. The X-frame base has gilded paw feet. c.1810
Stop-fluted corner
GILTWOOD AND VERDE ANTICO SIDE TABLE
This rectangular table has a verde antico (old green) veneered marble top above a frieze inset with matching marble panels and fluted corners. The square, tapering legs are also inset with marble panels and are surmounted by carved caryatids, whose hands support the table top. c.1800.
The massive table top is veneered with marble.
The frieze is inset
with marble panels
that match the
table top.
The table legs are inset with marble panels
Caryatids support the table top.

NAPOLEON CROWNED HIMSELF Emperor
in 1804. From this date until his abdication in 1814, and final defeat by Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, he dominated the European scene. Moreover, his taste, and the Empire style that he cultivated, became omnipresent in Europe.
Already emerging before 1804, this austere style sought to associate Napoleon’s Empire with the glories of ancient Egypt and ancient Rome. This aim manifested itself in an almost archaeological interest in Classical motifs, promoted by Perrier and Fontaine, whose Recueil was
The frieze is decorated with
a central gilt-bronze rosette,
flanked by palmettes.
The protruding columns
have gilt-bronze
capitals and bases.
republished in 1812. The light style of furniture that prevailed before the turn of the century was now transformed into a truly imperial idiom in keeping with Napoleon’s despotic tendencies.
EMPIRE MOUNTS
Neoclassical influences are evident in the ubiquitous bronze dore mounts on Empire furniture: griffons, lions, and sphinxes abound. Martial motifs were especially popular, such as trophies or crossed swords. Some of the best-quality mounts were produced in the
workshop of Pierre Thomire. His mounts appear on furniture by Beneman and Weisweiler. Other Beneman pieces are known to have similar, high-quality applique details made by Antoine-Andre Ravario.
EMPIRE MAKERS
The dissolution of the Guild of Joiners and Cabinet-Makers in 1791 meant that craftsmen could now establish workshops comprising several trades in a single location. The workshops of the ancien regime were quick to
re-open after the Revolution, seeking a wider, often middle-class, clientele, who were sometimes less demanding. Some feared that this might lead to a decline in quality French furniture. However, the finest pieces, made for the Emperor and his circle, reveal the same technical brilliance as items produced in the previous century. Many of the great ebenistes had previously worked for Louis XVI, including Bellanger, Benenian, Georges Jacob, Molitor, and Weisweiler. It was also a period of great productivity between 1810 and 1811, as much as 17,000 francs was spent on furniture for Imperial residences, and half a million francs went to Georges Jacob Desmalter alone for furniture made for the Palais des Tuileries. There
were 10,000 workers involved with furniture production in Paris during the first decade of the 19th century, making pieces for both the local and export markets. Jacob-Desmalter
employed at least 88 workers, some at his Porte Saint-Denis workshop.
Upholstery and drapery sometimes overpowered the Empire room. Ceilings could be tented in strong, usually striped, colours (blues, reds,
The Empire style was born from a merger of art and political aspirations in a heady, post-Revolution atmosphere upheaval. It was
greens, and yellows) to echo tented military accommodation. The embroidered patterns on chair upholstery were both large and bold.
NOVEL FORMS
Several novel forms also appeared. The lit en bateau was very fashionable, often with scrolled ends, raised on a dais, and draped in fabric. It was similar in form to the recamier, or day bed, and the meridienne, a type of sofa with scrolled ends, one higher than the other. For middle-class homes, the less expensive lit droit was popular; it had a headboard under a triangular pediment. For the first time,
bedrooms were furnished with a Psyche mirror, or Cheval glass. The small, round gueridon, or candlestand, served a variety of functions, and sometimes had metal legs, patinated green to simulate ancient metals, possibly set with a porphyry top.
The commode slowly became more functional and occasionally the drawers were set behind doors. Chairs were often supported by Grecian sabre back legs, and had either rectangular or over-scrolled backs. Usually the
arms were supported on human or swan forms. Empress Josephine’s dressing room at Fontainebleau probably houses the most famous Empire chairs – those with a curved back en gondole.
Finally, there were various furniture forms for writing, from the box-like secretaire d abattant (and its relative the secretaire de compiegne) to the bureau plat, which assumed grand and monumental proportions under the Empire.
ARMCHAIRS “AUX TETES DE LION”
are made of mahogany. Each has
rectilinear back, an upholstered seat
and armrests, upholstered seats are
on sabre legs, with those at the front
terminating in lion’s-paw feet. The chairs are attributed to the maker Jean-Baptiste Demay of Paris. Although lion’s masks appear frequently on British furniture of the period, they are a
relatively unusual feature on French Empire pieces. 1805
This fine-quality flame-veneered tric trac, or games, table has a removable writing table top with inset brass corners and a baize playing-card surface on the reverse. Each side has one false drawer and one drawer for playing pieces. The table stands on square, tapering legs terminating in brass casters. c.1810.

Antique Mid 19th Century Russian Furniture.

WHILE RUSSIA’S SERFS scraped a meagre
existence tied to the land, the affluent society centred around the Imperial Court in St Petersburg enjoyed an extremely high standard of living that was reflected in the grand furniture they commissioned.
EUROPE’S MELTING POT
St Petersburg was a cosmopolitan city in the mid 19th century, with strong ties with France, the Low Countries, and the German and Italian states. Craftsmen from each of these areas flowed into the Russian capital, bringing with them ideas and designs from across Europe. French influence, in particular, was very
strong. Many of these journeymen were masters of their professions – Leo von Klenze, for example, was Court architect to Ludwig I of Bavaria before he designed interiors for the New Hermitage. He continued to champion the Russian Empire style well into the mid 19th century with his malachite and marble furniture. Russian rule over Finland meant that there was a free exchange of information between the two countries, and many Finnish craftsmen plied their trades in St Petersburg. As a result, the dominant Russian style of the period was an amalgam of fashions from many different places. The heavy
aspect of polite Russian furniture, designed for use in large spaces, was complemented by grand mounts of gilded wood or brass, featuring Classical motifs drawn from the European tradition.
Among the peculiarly Russian specialities of the period was metal furniture, which was used more frequently here than elsewhere in Europe. The Tula Imperial Armoury, an important weapons foundry, became famous for its iron furniture, such as the dressing room suite on display at the Pavlovsky Palace Museum. Carl Faberge, jeweller to the Imperial Court from 1884, designed a
handful of superb items of furniture that exerted an enormous influence on the fashionable elite. These high-fashion pieces were the exception, however, as a general decline took place in the Russian furniture industry during the late 19th century. Increased mechanization was the death knell for many craftsmen who could not compete with the new factories in terms of output or cost. In these factories, machine-cut pine carcasses were covered with very thin machine-cut hardwood veneers before finally being finished by hand. In this way, furniture that appeared to equal the quality of that created by the artisan was produced far more cheaply.
UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR
From a suite of furniture made for the Winter Palace in St Petersburg, this carved and gilded armchair is upholstered in crimson silk. It was created in Louis XV style.
Winter Palace interior Designed by Alexander Bryullov, the Malachite Room was rebuilt in 1837 as a drawing room for Alexandra Fyodorovna, the wife of Tsar Nicolas I. The richly gilded furniture was produced by the workshop of Peter Gambs from sketches by Auguste de Montferrand.
GOTHIC CHAIR
This Gothic-style, high-backed chair carved out of walnut was designed by E. Gambs for the Gothic Study of the Golitsyn-Stroganov estate in Maryino. Mid 19th century.
CYLINDER BUREAU
The drum-shaped case of this mahogany desk is supported by two shaped legs with carved and gilded swans at the top and partly gilded claw-and-ball feet at the bottom. The legs are joined by a flat, carved cross-stretcher. The
desk has a fitted interior, containing shelves and compartments for letters and writing equipment, and a leather writing slide. A series of wooden slats attached to a single piece of cloth composes the roll-top lid, which retracts to the back. Late 19th century.

MALACHITE TABLE
Alexandre II malachite low table is mounted with lour scroll and foliate ormolu cartouches. Beneath the table lop, a baluster stern, ending in a foliate motif carving, is flanked by four scroll legs on scroll and foliate sabots. The table stands on glass bun feet, which were added at a later date. The malachite used to create this table
was mined at Yekaterinburg in the Ural Mountains. Malachite from the same source was also used to create the Malachite Room at the Winter Palace in St Petersburg (see above right). Russian craftsmen from the Peterhof and Yekaterinburg works used the Russian mosaic technique to cover large surfaces; they cut pieces of malachite into 3mm thick slices and attached them to a base to produce an attractive overall pattern. c.1860.
SILVER-MOUNTED TABLE
The top of this Louis XVI-style Faberge table has a beaded silver border, The drawer is applied with a silver laurel wreath with ribbon cresting. The fluted legs are joined by a silver-mounted stretcher. Late 19th century.
MAHOGANY BOOKCASE
This two-door glazed bookcase has a broken pediment with a brass moulded edge and brass fluted decoration to the central frieze. The doors have well-figured mahogany frames with central glazed panels and boldly modelled
brass astragals. The doors have canted corners with brass flutes, surmounted and supported by brass square paterae. The sides are inset with panels, bordered by brass lines. The whole
stands on a plinth, supported on square, tapering legs, terminating in brass sabots. c.1840.

Enamelled glass
The process of enamelling has been known since Roman times, and from the end of the 13th century was used to great effect by Islamic glassmakers to decorate mosque lamps. In Europe enamelling first appeared in Venice in the 15th century, and spread elsewhere during the 16th century. In Vienna in the early 19th century beakers were decorated with transparent enamels
in the Biedermeier style by such artists as Gottlob Samuel Mohr and Anton Kothgasser and in the later part of 19th century copies of earlier styles were made by manufacturers all over Europe, the most outstanding of which were Islamic- and Iznik-style wares, which were made in France, and Histortsmus wares, which were produced in Germany.Enamelling
, which can be used to decorate both colourless and coloured glass, was used extensively in Europe from the 16th century. It was employed most notably to decorate armorial wares, but it was also used to create bright and colourful decoration in naturalistic motifs; naive and charming designs of flowers and animals are highly characteristic. On many wares enamelled decoration was used in conjunction with gilding.
ITALY
The invention of cristallo glass c.14.50 by Angelo Barovier (4.1460) provided a perfectly clear ground that was ideally suited to enamelling in brilliant colours. Enamelling, a technique that the Venetians probably learned from Islamic glassmakers, was at its peak in Venice from the 15th to the mid-16th centuries. The process involved applying a thick paste of powdered glass and a colouring metallic oxide in an oil medium to the surface of the glass, which was then heated in a furnace, where the enamel and glass fused. Each colour required a different firing temperature, and the work could easily burn if overfired. Enamelling is a notoriously difficult technique, and most enamelling of this period is
restricted to the borders, with simple scale and dot patterns. On much more sophisticated wares, such as specially commissioned commemorative tazze (ornamental serving dishes), enamelling was often combined with gilding, and decoration included portraits, coats of arms, family and guild crests, and mythological figures. Although enamelling fell out of favour by the late 16th century, it was revived during the second half of the 18th century by Oswaldo Brussa, who, with his son Angelo, decorated clear-glass beakers, carafes, and bottles with birds, flowers, and biblical scenes in a charming and naive style.
GERMANY AND BOHEMIA
In the 16th century enamelling was developed as a popular form of decoration in the regions of Germany and Bohemia. From the mid-16th century German glass decorators, inspired by finely decorated wares from Venice, used brightly coloured enamels to decorate large, simple shapes made from coarse, robust soda glass. The technique was especially popular for decorating traditional drinking glasses or goblets, particularly the Humpen (simple, cylindrical drinking vessels, the foot rims of which are decorated with white enamelled dashes). Variations on the Humpen include the Reichsadlerhumpen (”Imperial Eagle Beaker”), which was designed to toast and show allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor, and featured the double-headed Imperial eagle with outstretched wings from which hang shields showing the constituent parts of the Empire; the Hofkellereiglas (decorated with armorial decorations), Wilkommhumpen (”greeting glass”), usually of large proportions, and Kurfturstenhumpen (”Elector’s beaker”), decorated with depictions of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Seven Electors of the Empire.
Other German drinking vessels that were enamelled Include goblets and beakers such as the Passglas (a tall cylindrical beaker decorated with horizontal bands, which indicated the amount of beer to be consumed by a drinker before they passed the glass on to the next person) and the Stangenglas (a long narrow beaker on a pedestal base). These wares were enamelled in very bright colours with decoration such as dated armorial and political motifs, Lind designs commemorating guilds and trades.
In Bohemia in the 18th century enamelling was mostly used to decorate flasks, bottles, and tankards made of opaque-white Milchglas (”milk glass”). The white body imitated porcelain, and the decoration featured people, animals, and flowers painted in a naive folk style in bright polychrome enamels.
In the 17th century Johann Schaper (1621-70),
a Hausmaler (”home painter”) based in Nuremberg, developed an enamelling techniques which he used to decorate both glass and porcelain. Schwarzlot (black-lead) enamelling involved decorating glass vessels (mainly tumblers) with black or brown transparent enamel, and was fashionable from c.1650 to 1750. Designs were typically inspired by engravings and depicted battle scenes, landscapes, and mythological subjects.
In the 18th century the popularity of Schwarzlot decoration spread to Bohemia and Silesia. One of the most celebrated exponents of the technique at this time was Ignaz Preissler (1676-1741), a glass and porcelain painter, who used the technique to decorate glass tumblers and flasks with mythological scenes, townscapes, Laub- and Bandelwerk (decoration of interwoven leaves and strapwork), and chinoiserie.
BRITAIN AND SPAIN
Before 17.50 enamelling was relatively rare in Britain. Among the best-known early British enamellers were the Beilby family. In 1760 William Beilby (1740-1819) and his sister Mary Beilby ( 1749-97) moved from Bilston, in Staffordshire, to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in the north-east of England, where they enamelled wares between c.1762 and 1774. Their most celebrated wares are large pieces, Such as the “Royal Beilbys” – goblets featuring the Prince of Wales’s feathers and made from 1763 to commemorate the birth of the Prince of Wales (later George IV); their armorial goblets enamelled on the howl and commissioned by local families are also of note. Typical decoration includes simple borders of thinly applied white flowers, fruits, hops, and barley; more ambitious designs include Arcadian landscapes, ruins, and even sporting scenes.
Other British decorators who painted with enamels include-80) and Michael Edkins
,James Giles (1718
(173 1 34-18 11). Giles decorated glassware for the Falcon Glassworks (est. 1693) in London. Edkins, who worked
in Bristol, painted opaque white glass, both with chinoiseries and with charming, naive designs of insects, birds, and other naturalistic motifs.
In Spain enamelled glassware was produced most notably at La Granja de San Ildefonso near Segovia. Established in 1728 by the Catalan glassmaker Ventura Sit (d.1755), near the palace of La Granja, the factory employed French and German glassmakers, who brought with them a variety of techniques and styles that gave the glass an international character. Typical wares include glasses and tumblers, and although many were embellished with gilded decoration, enamelled floral designs, notably tulips and roses, were also popular.
Italy
• GLASS cristallo glass is most typical; some wares appear slightly cloudy due to Grizzling
• DECORATION many pieces feature naive folk art designs of flowers or biblical scenes; on some examples enamelling is used in conjunction with gilding
Germany and Bohemia
• GLASS Milchglas should be a slightly off-white colour
• COLOUR earlier, more collectable glass is often a smoky greyish-green colour; most later glass is a strong green
• DECORATION commemorative designs, rustic scenes, and flowers in bright colours arc typical
• CONDITION damage to enamelling can greatly reduce
the value; worn gilding is common but insignificant
• BEWARE be careful with .Schwarzlot glass that features transfer-printed decoration, as many reproductions were made in the 19th century
Britain and Spain
• GLASS glass is mostly clear, or sometimes blue or white
• DECORATION Britain: some wares by the Beilby family feature armorials; many pieces depict charming, naturalistic designs; Spain: floral designs, especially tulips and roses, arc highly characteristic; designs should be neat and well drawn; enamelling is often combined with gilded decoration
• COLLECTING Britain: “Royal Beilbys” and armorial goblets with coloured decoration are valuable and highly collectable
Styles of enamelled glass produced after 1800 are many and varied. In Germanic Europe (a region that included such cities as Prague, Vienna, Copenhagen, and Berlin) the period known as the Biedermeier period (c.1815–c.1848) was one of middle-class prosperity, and this ensured the continued popularity of such decorative arts as glassmaking. Enamelled wares from the early 19th century are typically decorated with topographical scenes, floral designs, and portraits in bright colours. Following the re-establishment of the German Empire in 1871 there was a revival of the production of traditional German styles of glass; this revival is known as “Historismus”. Exceptional enamelled wares were produced in France in the 19th century, notably elaborate Islamic designs and some delicately decorated opaline wares. In Britain enamelled decoration was mainly restricted to monochromatic transfer-printed patterns on opaque white grounds.
GERMANY AND BOHEMIA
During the Biedermeier period Samuel Mohn (1762-1815), a Hausmaler (”home painter”) in Dresden, pioneered the use of a thin, transparent enamel decoration, which he used to great effect on tumblers and beakers. His son Gottlob Samuel Mohn (1789-1825) learned the technique from his father and in c.1811 went to Vienna, where he
met Anton Kothgasser (1769-1851), a painter at the Royal porcelain factory. Both men used the technique to decorate simple, straight-sided beakers and,
from 1814, a type of beaker known as a Ranftbecher, with a waisted or tapered body and a thick cogwheel-cut base. Kothgasser’s enamelled decorations resembled romantic watercolours; his designs included fine landscapes,
cityscapes (particularly of Vienna), portraits, and allegorical and Neo-classical subjects. Mohn used silhouettes and allegorical subjects as decoration but is best known for his tumblers decorated with topographical motifs – palaces, cityscapes, and tourist views; his beakers typically have gilded borders. Other distinguished contemporary enamellers include Carl von Scheidt and Andreas Mattoni (1779-1864), 79-1864), who established a school at Karlsbad where Ludwig Moser (1833-1916) was a pupil.
Following the unification of Germany in 1871, there was a fashion for reproducing “historic” styles to create a sense of national identity; this trend (which also appeared in Italy in the mid-19th century) is known as “Historismus”. Glassware was just one of the media in which designs were reproduced in the “old German” style, characteristically with decorations of spurious crests, dates, and national insignia. There was a flood of traditional German drinking glasses made, including Humpen (simple, cylindrical beakers), Romer (drinking glasses with flared feet, wide cylindrical stems, and ovoid bowls), the Kuttrolf (a type of pouring flask), and other vessels made in imitation of 16th- and 17th-century originals, with false dates and inscriptions. These copies can usually be recognized by overelaborate decoration in bright, inappropriately coloured enamels, fictitious crests, crests of large towns rather than families, and heavy glass that is free from imperfections (early glass is frequently flawed). Wares, which are often of a very high quality and collectors’ items in their own right, may bear enamelled signatures identifying the manufacturer. The leading producers included the Rhenish Glasshouse (1886-92) in Ehrenfeld, Koln-Ehrenfeld, situated on the Rhine, near Cologne, and Meyrs Neffe of Bohemia (1841-1922) in Adolfov, known for producing copies of goblets with Hochschnitt (”high cut”) decoration during the 1890s. Hausmaler who worked on “Historismus” wares include Fritz Heckert, a glass enameller who established a glass-decorating works in Petersdorf, Bohemia, in 1866 and a glass factory in 1889. The company was active until c.1890 and specialized in the production of Humpen, enamelled with designs copied from traditional woodcuts and engravings. The strong Bohemian enamelling tradition was also continued late into the 19th century by such companies as Ludwig Moser & Sons (est. c.1857) in Karlsbad (now Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic).
FRANCE AND AUSTRIA
In the 19th century French enamellers gained international renown for their fine wares, receiving
commissions from all over the world, particularly
from Arab states, in the Near East. Much French
enamelling was executed on the finest opaline
glass. Some of the best examples arc Vases
decorated with animals, birds, and sprays of
wild flowers. Some of the most impressive,
although quite rare, French enamelled wares
pre produced by Philippe Joseph Brocard
(4.1896) and I.J. Imberton Inspired by 13th-
and l4th-century Islamic lamps, which were
elaborately decorated with arabesques, stylized
scrolls, and floral designs in thick, opaque
enamel, Brocard experimented with this style
from the I 860s. His designs included copies
of mosque lamps, vases, ewers, and dishes;
these pieces, decorated with thick enamelling,
jewelling, and gilding, won first prize at
the Paris Exhibition of 1878. Imberton also
decorated fine Islamic-style wares with stylized
motifs. In Austria the style was taken up by
the glass company of J. &’ L. Lobmeyr- (est. 1823) in Vienna, which designed a range of Islamic style glassware for the domestic and export market, and also won prizes for its Islamic-style wares at the Paris Exhibition of 1878.
BRITAINIn
Britain the firm of W.II.., B. Richardson (est. c. 1836) near Stourbridge, was famous lot- it, high quality wares and patented designs. It produced glass using many patented techniques. One was known as “vitrified colours”, the finest examples of which were shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. The commercial process involved transfer printing [)lack or coloured designs such as a pictorial scene onto the glasse
hebody
(which was i opaque:), and then firing the design. Sometimes the enamels were hand-painted onto the body, although this is not so common. The firm of Bacchus (est. c.18 16; later George Bacchus & Sons) in Birmingham also produced a series of wares in the 19th century, which were decorated with transfer-printed enamels, most of which feature Neo-classical scenes.

Pressed glass
The invention and development of mould pressing c.1820 revolutionized glass manufacture; previously an exclusive and highly priced commodity, decorative ,,lass became accessible to all. The technique involved pressing a gather of molten glass into a metal mould using a plunger. When the glass cooled, the mould was opened, and any excess glass attached to the seams was removed by hand.
NORTH AMERICA
The most important pressed-glass manufacturer in North America was the Boston & Sandwich Glass Co. 1826-88), founded by Deming Jarves (1790-1869), in Sandwich, Massachusetts. The firm produced inexpensive pressed-glass tableware in “lacy” glass with intricate stippled designs that resembled lace and covered the flaws caused by the pressing process; wares included table services and a range of coloured glassware. The earliest pressed patterns of Gothic arches, acanthus leaves, and scrolls were probably copied from cut glass. Another well-known company was the New England Glass Co. (1818-90), originally of East Cambridge, Massachusetts, and also founded by Jarves. Both firms specialized in the production of oil lamps and candlesticks with contrastingly coloured glass tops and bases. By the 1850s other pressed glass factories were also established throughout the Midwest.
Many firms produced brightly coloured pressed glass with a vivid orange or green iridescent surface, which is known as “Carnival” glass. It was made by spraying pressed glass with metallic powders, and was used to create eye-catching yet inexpensive tumblers, bowls, plates, and vases. Major makers include the Northwood Glass Co. (1888-1925) in Indiana, Pennsylvania, the Imperial Glass Co. (est. 1902) in Bellaire, Ohio, and the Fenton Art Glass Co. (est. 1904) in Williamstown, West Virginia. Between 1925 and 1950 mould pressing was widely used to mass-produce inexpensive glass items, such as trinkets, which were given away as premiums at petrol stations and in boxes of cereal, and also affordable pastel-coloured tablewares; these pieces are now known as -Depression” glass. Primary makers include the Jeanette Glass Co. (est. 1898) in Jeanette, Pennsylvania, and the Indiana Glass Co. (est. 1902) in Indiana, Pennsylvania.
BRITAIN
Mould pressing was used in the North of England before 1827, and from the mid-1870s was widely employed
by such firms as John Sowerby’s Ellison Glassworks (1847-1972) and George Davidson & Co. (est. 1867), both in Gateshead, Henry Greener & Co. (est. 1858) in Sunderland, and John Derbyshire & Co. (1873-6) in Manchester. Commemorative ware was
very popular in Britain, and in the 1870s John Derbyshire & Co. introduced patriotic mould-pressed figures to its range, including those of Britannia and Queen Victoria. In the 1860s
Henry Greener & Co. produced glass with a ground of small raised dots that was especially
well suited to press moulding. One of Sowerby’s most popular ranges was “Vitro-porcelain” glass, which closely resembled china. Launched in 1877, it was produced in several colours, including cream (registered as “Patent Queen’s Ivory Ware”), turquoise, white, green, and a marbled version known as “Malachite”. Ranges by George Davidson & Co., introduced in 1889, include opaque “Pearline” glass, which was produced in different shades of turquoise.
• DECORATION American pressed-glass designs are sharp; pieces with softer patterns are likely to be either copies or European; decoration is often in imitation of cut-glass designs; “lacy” patterns were also popular
• COLLECTING although primarily collected in the USA, pressed glass is now becoming more popular with collectors in Europe; generally, the more ornate the piece, the more desirable it will be
• BEWARE supposedly “rare” examples may be copies

Sevres
In the 19th century Sevres remained the pre-eminent porcelain factory in France both in quality and in innovation. Receiving state subsidies and patronage, it employed many eminent chemists, who developed new pastes, glazes, and decorative techniques, which kept the factory in the forefront of fashion. However, during this period there was an increasing divide between domestic or utilitarian wares and the very elaborate ornamental pieces, such as vases and large services, made for the State, for international exhibitions, and as diplomatic gifts.
A Plate from the Service des P6ches painted by L. Garneray This plate illustrates how the Sevres painters continued the late 18th-century tradition of using porcelain primarily as a medium for painting However, the motifs are no longer strictly Classical as they would have been during the 18th century Such an elaborate piece as this would have been used only for display in a cabinet.
(1840, diam. 24.5cm19lin; value J)
THE RESTORATION PERIOD
After France’s monarchy was restored in 1815, the country enjoyed a period of relative prosperity and stability until the 1840s. The Sevres factory continued to produce wares in the Empire style in the 1820s and 1830x, and continued the fashion of treating porcelain as a medium for painting; restrained Neo-classical forms were decorated all over, with little or none of the porcelain left showing. The royal family commissioned large display services, each piece painted with a scene surrounded by gilt borders with motifs such as acanthus, eagles, and trophies. However, portraits of the imperial family, and scenes commemorating the battles and deeds of the Emperor, were replaced by views of France, birds, or scenes of various crafts and trades. The finest examples of this style are the table or breakfast services illustrating industries, agriculture, and history for the palace of Fontainebleau.
The mixture of Classical, Egyptian, and chinoiserie motifs already evident in porcelain decoration before 1830 became more apparent and more complex with the introduction of Gothic and Renaissance Revival shapes
and motifs, such as grotesques and miniature
pinnacles and (rockets. Vases were painte
in imitation of 16th-century Limoges enamels with grotesques, flower swags, mythological scenes, and
scrollwork in grey on blue; this
was so successful that a specialis
enamelling workshop was set up
which operated between 1845
and 1872. Table services made
in the 1830s and 1840s for the
Duke of Orleans and the Duke
of Nemours, based on 18th-
century Rococo designs by Jean- Claude Duplessis (1690-1774), marked the revival of Rococo. From the 1840s the fashion for
treating porcelain as a canvas for painting declined. Areas of white porcelain again
became visible, particularly on everyday services. For example, the large services made for the royal residences (including those for staff use) tended to be simply ornamented, with a gilt or blue royal monogram in the centre and gold-leaf borders around the rims. This decoration was printed rather than painted, since from (.1845 the lithographic process was in use at Sevres, allowing printing in several colours.
THE SECOND REPUBLIC AND SECOND EMPIRE During the Second Republic (1848-52) Sevres suffered financial problems because there was little demand for luxury goods. Production increased again during the Second Empire ( 1852-70), when much of the factory’s output was intended either for the residences of Emperor Napoleon III, and as diplomatic gifts, or for display in the many international exhibitions. Plain domestic wares were also made in large quantities.
During the directorship of the chemist Victor Regnauld during the Second Empire there were several important developments in manufacturing and decoration. The production of soft paste was revived, although mainly at an experimental level, and slip-casting was introduced, meaning that very thin or large hollow pieces could be made. In the 1850s the chemist Alphonse-Louis Salvetat created a flambe glaze imitating Chinese porcelain, which was perfected in the 1880s; underglaze brown colours and coloured pastes imitating marble and hardstones were also introduced. One of the most popular techniques created during the 1850s was pate-sur pate: a process of building up a design in low relief on a tinted ground by applying layer upon laver of white slip and carving the details before firing.
From 1852 the Rococo Revival was the most popular style. The 18th-century forms were reproduced for tablewares and vases, but the gilding and decoration of scrolls, shells, figures, and flowers is more crowded and exaggerated than on original 18th-century pieces. The factory revived landscape panels with figures in the manner of the Rococo artists Watteau and Boucher, as well as coloured grounds, particularly turquoise and pink. Factories in Germany and France that had bought the white wares earlier sold off by Sevres to alleviate its financial problems copied this style in the late 19th century; these copies are usually described by dealers and auctioneers as “Sevres”, too, or as “Sevres-style”.
There was also a revival of the Pompeian and Classical Greek styles between 1845 and 1855, evident in the use of motifs and designs based on engravings of the antiquities of Pompeii. However, the shapes are not always Classical in inspiration, and the colours and decorative techniques, such as painting in matt colours on biscuit porcelain to imitate Classical vases, are different from those used in the 18th-century Neoclassical period. The factory was able to keep up with fashion because it had retained the moulds of Neoclassical wares produced in the late 18th century under Louis XVI. This also led to a limited revival of biscuit porcelain figures c.1860.
THE LATE 19TH CENTURY
After the establishment of France’s Third Republic in 1871 the factory continued largely to produce ornamental pieces for embassies, ministries, and government buildings, as well as simpler pieces as prizes for lotteries and public competitions.
In 1877 the sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse 1824-87) was appointed director. He introduced Japanese-inspired designs that contrasted strongly with the overdecorated pieces in a confused mixture of historical styles. The factory also developed a new paste in the 1880s, which was fired at the lower temperature. This made possible an increased range of colours and the perfection of the flambe glazes imitating Oriental porcelain. These wares were particularly fashionable in the 1880s, when there was a vogue for Japanese art.
SEVRES COPIES
Many thousands of imitations of the 18th-century Sevres style were produced by French and other European manufacturers in the 19th century. After the Revolution huge numbers of blank Sevres wares were sold off to decorators. Later decorated pieces tend to have poorer-quality decoration and gilding and, if a piece has been refired, there is usually black speckling on the base.
he Restoration period
• BODY fine, white hard paste with a clear, glassy glaze; some items made in soft paste and coloured pastes imitating marble and hardstones
• STYLE continuation of Empire style, with introduction of Rococo, Gothic, and Renaissance elements
• FIGURES biscuit portraits and busts in the 18th-century Neo-classical style
Marks
This mark was used from 1834 to 1848; the letters “LP’ stand for “Louis-Philippe”, who succeeded to the French throne in 1830
The Second Republic and Second Empire
• STYLE Rococo Revival, often combined with Gothic and Renaissance motifs
• DECORATION painting of landscapes in the style of Watteau and Boucher, or large flowers, with gilding, coloured grounds, and scrollwork; pate-sur-pate
• FIGURES small classically inspired biscuit figures revived c.1860
The late 19th century
• STYLE continuation of mid-19th-century styles; Japanesque
• DECORATION plain grounds and glazes in pure colours for Japanese-style wares; Art Nouveau stylized flower motifs in pastel shades

Paris became an important centre of porcelain production from the 1780s. Several factors led to the vast increase in the number of porcelain factories: the discovery of kaolin in the Limoges area in 1768, which enabled the production of hard paste; sponsorship by members of the French royal and later imperial families; and the relaxation of laws protecting the monopoly of the Sevres factory. The heyday of the Paris factories was from the 1790s to the 1820s, during which period at least 15 factories and large workshops were operating.
THE DIHL FACTORY
Christophe Dihl ( 1753-1830) and Antoine Guerhard (5.1793) founded a factory on the rue de Bondi in 1781 under the protection of the Duke of Angouleme. The factory’s wares of the 1780s are decorated with cornflowers (known as the “Angouleme sprig”), geometric motifs, and landscapes. The factory’s finest period was the early 19th century, when the popularity and quality of its wares rivalled Sevres. During this period the factory specialized in decoration imitating hardstones. Dihl carried out research into ground colours, producing “jaspered” effects simulating agate and tortoiseshell, usually in combination with fine gilt borders and sometimes reserved scenes. The factory also made biscuit figures of children and allegorical subjects in the Rococo and later Neo-classical tastes; these were sometimes mounted on plinths decorated in matt blue and gilt in imitation of lapis lazuli. Following financial problems during the 1820s, the factory closed in 1828.
THE NAST FACTORY
One of the most successful of all Paris factories, the Nast factory was founded in 1783 by the Austrian Nepomucene-Jean-Hermann Nast (1754-1817). The factory, which operated until 1835, produced a huge variety of items, from luxury tablewares to domestic items such as chamber-pots, jars, and lamps. Its best period was following the Revolution (1789), when it was well known for its development of matt ground colours, in particular a chrome green. Decoration could be very lavish, with high-quality gilding and painted landscapes, Classical subjects, and grotesques; in 1810 Nast developed gilt relief borders imitating bronze, used mainly on cups and saucers. The factory made a range of biscuit figures and busts of Classical and mythological subjects, Napoleon, and other personalities of the Empire period, as well as blue-tinted biscuit wares in imitation of Wedgwood, such as clockcases and candlesticks. It also sold large quantities of undecorated porcelain, which sometimes bears the marks of other Paris factories, such as Darte Freres.
THE DAGOTY AND HONORS FACTORIES
The Dagoty and Honore factories formed a partnership between 1816 and 1820, after which they operated independently again. The best-known products of the partnership were richly gilded dessert, tea, and coffee services with animal-shaped handles and spouts, and butterfly-shaped knops. Eggcups and inkwells were modelled as snails or mythological figures, and larger cups as swans, shells, and tulips. On some pieces a red ground with gilt chinoiseries, imitating lacquer, was used, which is rare and highly sought after. Coloured grounds combined with landscapes, fable subjects, and figures based on Pompeian paintings were popular.
• BODY pure white, and even, hard paste with glassy, clear glaze; the dense, slightly sugary appearance of the paste can be seen on the often unglazed foot-rims
• DECORATION simple gilt borders of Classical motifs and scattered flowers; painted scenes with coloured and gilt grounds; painted imitations of hardstones and lacquer; rich gilding
• FIGURES biscuit figures of children, allegorical subjects