Posts Tagged ‘lotus flowers’

Kakiemon
A type of Arita ware, Kakiemon is a delicate porcelain with a distinctive palette. The name is derived from a family of potters and enamellers working in Arita, who are traditionally believed to have introduced overglaze enamelling on porcelain to Japan in the 1640s. The extremely fine, milky-white body (nigoshide) was believed to have been exclusive to the Kakiemon kiln, although this is now disputed. Wares include small dishes, bottles, bowls, and vases, many of which are of geometric form.
DECORATION AND FORMS
Although the Kakiemon kilns produced blue-andwhite porcelain, they are generally associated with wares expertly painted in a palette of iron-red, cerulean-blue, turquoise-green, yellow, aubergine, and gold. These delicate porcelains form a counterpoint to the heavier Imari wares.
Often asymmetrical, the designs enhance
the milky-white body of the best Arita porcelain. Kakiemon wares are usually painted with natural themes: birds in branches, flying squirrels, the “quail and millet” design, the “Three
Friends of Winter” (pine, prunus, and bamboo), trailing flowers, and banded hedges. Human subjects are rare; some have been given titles such as the “Woman and the Nightingale” and the “Hob in the Well”, the latter a design based on the story of a Chinese sage who saved his friend who had fallen into a large fishbowl.
The chrysanthemum, the national flower of Japan, is a very common form for
Kakiemon wares, as is the pointed bracket-shape. Many Arita wares, especially the Kakiemon type, are hexagonal or octagonal in form. An iron-brown dressing (fuchi-beni) was applied to the edges of many Kakiemon porcelains to embellish them and to protect the rims from being chipped; this was probably introduced around the mid-17th century, following the example set by Chinese potters. Kakiemon porcelain was arguably the most influential Japanese porcelain in Europe; after it was exported to Europe at the end of the 17th century, the forms and decoration were copied by many major factories including Meissen, Saint Cloud,Chantilly, Chelsea, and Bow.
• BODY a pure milky-white (nigoshide)
• GLAZE almost colourless
• PALETTE iron red, cerulean blue, turquoise, brown, yellow, and gold; black is used for detailing; iron-
brown edges (fuchi-beni) are typical
• FORMS geometric; dishes are hexagonal, octagonal, or decagonal
• DECORATION mainly flower motifs and only rarely figures; asymmetrical and sparse; popular patterns include the “quail and millet”, the “Three Friends of Winter” (pine, bamboo, and prunus), banded hedges, flying squirrels, and the ho-ho bird (phoenix)
• COPIES made in many European factories from the end of the 18th century, including Meissen, Chantilly, Saint Cloud, Chelsea, and Bow

Qing before 1800
Following the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty by the Qing Dynasty in 1644, production at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province was severely disrupted until 1677, when one of the classic eras of porcelain production began. This lasted until c.1750.
BLUE-AND-WHITE WARES
Blue and white dominated the export market during this period, but these wares were not prominent among the ceramics made at the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen. Before 1800 Qing imperial blue-and-white wares tended to imitate early Ming versions, particularly from the Yongle (1403-24) and Xuande (1426-35) reign periods, with decoration that was carefully spaced. The designs on these pieces are generally formal, measured arrangements showing stylized lotus flowers among scrolling foliage. The blue was applied in imitation of the “heaped and piled” effect that connoisseurs so admired in the early Ming wares. Often the reign mark used on those wares was used again in deference to the earlier period.
ENAMELLED WARES
Enamelled porcelains came into their own during the Qing period, replacing blue-and-white wares as the focus of technical and artistic innovation. The technical advances signalled by the development of famille-verte and famille-rose wares greatly enhanced the decorative possibilities of the medium, while the body had now become so refined and delicate as to be the perfect foil for artistic virtuosity. Increasingly, the white porcelain was not so much decorated as painted in the manner of silk-scroll painting.
The famille-verte palette was first introduced during the late 17th century as a development of the wucai palette. In early famille verte the blue is applied under the glaze in the Ming wucai style, but distinguished from it by a generally brighter palette. In the mature famille verte, which dates from the last years of the 17th century, the blue was applied over the glaze and is transparent. Gold was sometimes applied to famille verte wares of the early 18th century. The designs on these wares tended to be detailed representations of nature, including dramatic rocky landscapes and flowers, or precious objects such as classic vases and items for the scholar’s desk.
The famille-rose palette was created c.1720, at the end of the Kangxi reign period. The palette is named after one of the constituent colours – opaque pink enamel, which was achieved using gold. The palette also includes Lin opaque white and yellow that made blending and shading of colours possible in a way that could not be achieved with the transparent colours of the familleverte palette. This gave rise to the exquisitely refined decoration seen on porcelain of the Yongzheng period, with ink-and-wash-style landscapes or
naturalistic depictions of flowers and fruit
rendered in a painterly style against superbly
clear white backgrounds. Among the most
refined Yongzheng and Qianlong wares are
famille-rose wares known as guyuexuan, which were painted in the imperial workshops. Some of these bear poetic lines or calligraphic designs, and they were copied widely in the 20th century.
MONOCHROMES
In this period monochromes were the ceremonial wares used by the emperor and had to be of the very finest quality. In the early 18th century copper-red glazes, which had been so highly prized in the early Ming period, were reintroduced. However, as a result of a longer firing time, these new colours are not as resonant and fresh as their earlier Counterparts, and they can be distinguished from the originals by the extra laver of clear glaze over the copper red. Copper oxide was also used to make the so-called “peachbloom” glaze, which was introduced at this time and applied to a limited range of small wares intended for the scholar’s table, including water droppers and brush rests. This glaze is characterized by the combination of a pinkish red and a cloudy greenish bloom, creating a colour reminiscent of the blush on a ripening peach.
REIGN MARKS
The practice of marking imperial wares with the name of a reign period was introduced during the early 15th century, and continued to the end of the Qing period. Either four or six (or, in very rare cases, eight) characters were inscribed in underglaze blue, and often enclosed within a double circle. In the Yongzheng period, seal-script reign marks became common, and during the succeeding Qianlong period they were the norm. Conventional script became popular again at the end of the 19th century. Reign marks should not be taken at face value when dating a piece, since it was common practice to inscribe wares with the mark of art earlier reign period, particularly those of the much-esteemed Nling period and especially of Emperor Chenghua (1465-87). This was not so much a question of fraud as of admiration for and imitation of antiquity.
The experimentation with monochrome glazes resulted in many innovative effects, such as the speckled turquoise and dark-bloc “robin’s-egg” glaze, which is thought to have been inspired by the Jun wares of the Song period. The “teadust” glaze is created when iron oxide is underfired, resulting in a mottled green on a yellowish-brown background. The “iron-rust” glaze is
a streaked reddish-brown with a metallic sheen, achieved by cooling the ware very rapidly after firing. The pale-little Clair-de-lone glaze was created by incorporating a very small amount of cobalt blue and was applied only to the most delicate wares.
“ARCHAIC” WARES
The Qing emperors, especially Qianlong, were avid collectors of antiquities, and many Qing imperial ceramics closely imitate ancient models. This is particularly evident in the traditional forms that were favoured, which include pastiches of early bronzes and jades and also of classic ceramics of the Song and Ming Dynasties; some wares were made using a combination of the two forms. The Qing potters also tried to re-create the glazes applied to the archaistic pieces of the Song period; these included thick, crackled glazes used on Guan wares. The Qing copies are generally smoother and shinier than the originals.
Qing reign periods Shunzhi ( 1644-6 1 ) Kangxi(1662-1722) Yongzheng (1723-35) Qianlong ( 1736-95) Jiaqing (1796-1820)
Daoguang ( 182 1 —50) Xianfeng (1851-61)
Tongzbi ( 1862-74)
Guangxu (1875-1908) Xuantong (1909-11 )
• BODY very fine white porcelain
• POTTING extremely neat with smooth, rounded foot-rims, the bases of bowls and dishes arc flat, unlike the slightly convex form of the bases of Ming wares; there are no visible joins on vases and pots
• GLAZES a wide range of innovative glazes appears on monochromes; imitations of crackled Song-period Guan glazes are found on “archaic” pieces
• ENAMELS many colours enhanced with opaque white and yellow in the famille-rose palette, permitting shading and more decorative potential
• FORMS small, fine pieces for delicate porcelains as well as imitations of archaic bronze and jade forms
• Di CORATION blossoming and fruiting branches
rendered in a painterly manner; emblems of good luck, such as the characters sbou (long life) and fu (bat), are often integrated into the designs
Reign marks
Reign marks for Shunzhi and Kangxi are always written in conventional script; for the period of Yongzheng they may be written in the same manner or in seal script; Qianlong, Jiaqing and Daoguang are usually done in seal characters; from the Xianfeug reign onward, marks may be written in either style