Posts Tagged ‘medallions’

BOWL IN DARK RED GLASS, ENAMELLED AND GILT
Byzantine, i ith-t2th century A.D.Ht. 79 mm (3*13 in.)
Theophilus, describing ‘how the Greeks
embellish with Gold and Silver’, said ‘they
take the white, red and green glass, whicb
are used for enamels, and carefully grind
each one separately with water on a
porphyry stone. With them they paint
small flowers and scrolls . . .’. He went on
to describe the furnace in which they fired
window glass, including painted glass, and
specified that the glass be bedded down on
quick-lime. Vasari, who wrote an account
of the stained glass technique of Gugliel-
imo de Marcillat (d.1529) stressed that
‘this burning in of the colours requires the
greatest caution, for if the heat be too great
it will cause the glass to crack, and if
insufficient it will not fix the colours’. To
test the enamel, Theophilus suggested
that you should ’see if you can scratch off
the colour with your nail’. Glasses of the
type described by Theophilus are known,
dating from the 1 ith to the 12th centuries;
one of them is illustrated.
VASE WITH ENAMELLING AND GILDING
Syria, Ј.1320-30 A.D. Ht. 302 mm (11 88 in.)
(See also colour photograph 11)
Not until the 13th and 14th centuries was
the next high point in the history of
enamelling reached, with the great Islamic
mosque lamps and other vessels produced
in the near East, particularly in Syria.
Besides the weli-known lamps which
adorned Moslem holy places, the Syrian
enamellers decorated such objects as
footed bowls, sprinklers, globes, beakers
and long-necked bottles. The vase illus-
trated is decorated with golden arabesques
and fish motifs finely outlined in red. The
inscription round the widest point of the
vessel repeats the words ‘The Wise’
(referring to the God of Mohammed). The
medallions around the neck of the vase
probably contain the armorial symbol of
the nobleman who commissioned the
object. The glass itself is not clear and
colourless, for most of the Islamic glass of
that time is of a brownish or greenish tint,
often clouded with bubbles.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
In Islam the art of enamelling came to
maturity from the 13th century, the finest
work being done in Syria. The lamps in
Egyptian mosques exported from Syria
are the most famous examples of all the
Islamic enamelled glass. Strictly speaking,
these objects are lamp-holders or lanterns
rather than lamps, for they enclosed an
oil-vessel which provided the illumination.
They were suspended from the roof of the
mosque by chains which, when the roof
was high, passed through a glass globe or
ball, from where the chains radiated to the
handles of the lamp. Enamelled glass was
used for these lamps, not only for its
obvious decorative effect, but because the
Koran said, ‘God is the light of the
Heavens and the Earth: His light is as a
niche in which is a lamp, the lamp in a
glass, the glass as it were a glittering star’.
Many reproductions of mosque lamps
were made at the end of the 19th century.
Unfortunately, like the Romans, the Is-
lamic glass-making artists left no written
record of the craft which they practised
with such very great skill. It is not until
the 15th century that a contemporary
record of enamelling techniques is found,
but from that time, especially with the
advent of printing, there is no lack of
written evidence. Enamelling on glass was
a speciality of the Venetian glass-makers,
a technique which they developed during
the 15th century, probably reaching tech-
nical maturity by the middle of the
century. In all essentials their enamelling
technique was similar to that of the
Islamic artists, yet it would appear that the
Venetians independently re-invented en-
amelling on glass—possibly borrowing the
idea from the Italian worker in metal. By-
tradition the invention has been ascribed
to the glass-maker Angelo Baroviero.
Throughout the 15th century the coloured
glass the Venetians had invented—blue,
green, white, purple and turquoise—was
richly enamelled and gilded.
GOBLET IN  COLOURED GLASS
ENAMELLED DECORATION
Venice. Italy, late 15th 10 early 16th century
By the beginning of the 16th century the
fashion in Venice for coloured glass had
given way to a desire for clear colourless
glass. Enamelling, along with other forms
of decoration, was usually found on clear
glass specimens from this time, although
the clear metal was far less suited to the
technique. The pictorial work which had
been used so much on coloured glass soon
disappeared, and enamelling was restricted
to a few simple motifs. A favourite of these
was a form of scale pattern in bead-like
dots of enamelling and light gilding,
through which lines were scratched, al-
though simple bands of coloured dots were
sometimes the sole decoration of the piece.
Another familiar motif of the late 15th-
and early 16th-century glasses resembled
a lily-of-the-vallcy or a small fruit with a
calyx attached, as on the goblet illustrated.
This goblet also helps to show how the
Venetians combined their coloured and
clear glass in one vessel.
Although representational painting was no
longer the fashion by the beginning of the
16th century, a transitional phase is
represented by a series of glasses enamelled
with grotesque ornamentation built up
from patterns of flowers, leaves, animal
and human-like forms. Armorial glasses
were probably among the latest Venetian
work in the technique of enamelling. A
shield of arms or an emblem would be
added to the few simple decorative motifs
that were now in use on clear colourless
glass, and at their best, these were very
well drawn, as in the dish illustrated.
However, in some cases there is reason to
suspect that the shields were later addi-
tions. Venetian taste, now inclining to-
wards the new, clear colourless metal,
began to appreciate glass for its own sake
and to be interested more in its quality and
beauty of shape than in its added decora-
tion. By the middle of the 16th century the
technique of enamelling, apart from wares
made for export, had virtually passed out
of fashion in Italy.
beaker with enamelled decoration
Made in Venice for the German market, 1603
Ht. 267 mm (105 in.)
Reuhsadlerhumpen, pale green glass with
enamelled decoration
Bohemia, 1654. Ht. 200 mm (11-4 in.)
Although enamelling became unfashion-
able in Italy, it remained a favourite form
of decoration in Germany until the second
half of the 18th century. The earliest
enamelled glasses thai might have a claim
to being German are some cylindrical
beakers commonly bearing German arms,
but it is now thought that these were
ordered from Venice by German buyers.
The beaker illustrated, inscribed ‘Roccho
Grasl’, is a typical late example of the type.
The most productive enamelling work-
shops in the late 16th and early 17th
centuries were situated in Bohemia,
whence the craft was carried to Germany
by emigrant workmen. German enamel-
ling, with its bold colours, has the attrac-
tiveness of a peasant art, but the enamels
used were not of fine quality nor were the
drawings of any distinction. The glass
itself was relatively poor, and only a few
shapes were attempted: the tall Stangen-
glas, the cylindrical Humpen, jugs, beakers,
and screw-topped spirit flasks.
The subjects used by the German enam-
ellers for the most part belong to peasant
art. Gonventional portraits, simplified
landscapes, scenes of artisans at work,
guild processions, satirical subjects, alle-
gories and inscriptions, usually illiterate
and sometimes obscene, are common.
Biblical subjects, the Emperor and the
Seven Electors and the Reichsadler are also
depicted on these glasses. The Reichsadler
is the Imperial double-eagle, bearing on
its wings the arms with names of a fanciful
hierarchy of the Holy Roman Empire; the
arms are arranged in groups of four in the
so-called Quaternion system derived from
Schedel’s Wellkronik of 1483. They begin
with those of Rome and the three spiritual
Electors (Treves, Cologne, Mayence),
balanced by the four temporal ones
(Bavaria, Brandenburg, Saxony, Palatin-
ate), ending with four ‘Dorffer’ and four
‘Birg’. The Reichsadlerhumpen may have
had some contemporary significance, since
they originated during the strife of the
Thirty Years’ War. The Retchsadler and
the ‘Elector’ glasses remained popular for
a long period.
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
In the guild regulations of the glass-
makers of Krcibitz in Bohemia (1669) one
of the tasks set the aspiring craftsman was
to ‘prepare with colours an Imperial
Eagle, with all its members, in one and a
half days’. This referred to the Reich-
sadlerhumpen, which most likely had to be
fired more than once, those enamels which
required a higher temperature being fired
before the ones which fluxed at a lower
heat In all essentials the contemporary
descriptions of enamelling agree with each
other, the cakes or beads of enamel being
pounded on marble or porphyry, [he
powder thus resulting being washed and
applied to the already annealed glass vessel
and the glass being carefully reheated so
that the enamels fused to it successfully. It
would seem that enamelled vessel-glass
began to be fired in special ‘muffle kilns’
rather than in the glass furnace itself by
the end of the 17th century. As in ordinary
coloured glass, metal oxides were used to
give the enamels their various colours.
‘SchwarzloT, or black enamelling on glass
was a Dutch invention originally used lor
the decoration of windows; it spread into
Northern Germany, and was developed b\
Johann Schaper in the third quarter ol the
17th century. Schaper was born at Ham-
burg in 1621, was at Nuremberg from
1655, at Ratisbon in 1664 and died in 1670.
Originally a painter of stained window-
glass, he was the first of the South German
llausmaler or independent artists, obtain-
ing undecorated glass and pottery and
decorating it to Ins own invention. I le used
copper oxide mixed with black enamel
pigment, painting this on to the glass ahd
then scratching his design through it with
a needle in the manner of the stained-glass
painter. He painted mainly in black, with
slight touches of red and gold. In the
beaker illustrated he used for inspiration
an engraving of a gypsy procession by
Jacques Callot (1592-1635; Callot’s work,
depicting scenes of Italian life with fan-
tastic caricature, was very popular in the
17th and 18th centuries).
Adding: The Skill of the Decorator
Johann Schaper gained some followers,
one of whom, like himself, was a window-
glass painter. This was Johann Ludwig
Paber, who also painted faience. Herman
Benckcrtt of Frankfort-on-Main was an-
other of Schapers known followers. The
Humpen illustrated is a remarkably fine
example of the Schwarzlot technique,
probably the work of one of Schaper’s
imitators. The scene shows a man being
pushed into a pigsty by a laughing and
gesticulating crowd—presumably for
drunkenness, for the Latin inscription on
the reverse is a diatribe against drinking.
After 1700 the Schwarzlot technique was
carried on in Bohemia and Silesia by
independent decorators. Though they
were using the same medium, in style and
subject their work was very different.
They concentrated on landscapes, hunting
scenes, warriors and scenes from peasant
life, then replaced these by scroll-and-
strap-work, Chinese figures, putti and
fantastic animals.
In Spain a distinct style of enamelling
glass emerged in the late 15th, 16th and
early 17th centuries. It originated in
Barcelona, where glass-makers were in
considerable rivalry with Venice towards
the end of the 15th century. The most
important product of the Barcelona crafts-
men was their enamelled ware, which
surprisingly showed a complete inde-
pendence of Venetian models. The colours
they used for their enamels were notably a
light yellowish-green, in combination with
yellow, white and lavender blue, and
occasionally they used touches of black,
red and brown. Their style of enamelling
has been described as primitive, but also
as powerful in design. The motifs they
used were Near-Eastern in feeling, such as
stylised trees, arabesque foliage, running
animals and pairs of birds. Occasionally,
figures in 16th-century European costume
were used. The vase illustrated was a
favourite shape, showing a typical motif
resembling a small fruit with calyx attached
which was also found on Venetian glass.
Enamelled decoration on glass, though
familiar on the Continent from the 15th
century onwards, was apparently never
attempted in England until the middle of
the 18th century. Two types of enamelling
emerged in the third quarter of the 18th
century, one practised by the Beilby
family of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the
other practised on the opaque white glass
of the period (see Opaque White Glass).
William Beilby (1740-1819) and his sister
Mary (1749-97) were recorded by Thomas
Bewick, the wood-engraver, to have ‘had
constant employment of enamel-painting
of glass’. William had learned the art of
enamelling in Birmingham, and proceeded
to enamel glasses from about 1762. At
what point Mary joined him in his work is
not known, for their glasses are signed
simply ‘Beilby’. Their brother Ralph
Beilby (1743—1817), to whom Thomas
Bewick was apprenticed, may have had
some influence on their work through his
knowledge of heraldic engraving.
The first Beilby enamelled work was of an
heraldic nature, in both white and coloured
enamel on glasses or goblets with ogee or
bucket-shaped bowls. The Beilbys’ style
changed about 1774, and subjects such as
scenes of hunting, fishing and shooting,
pastoral scenes including ruins, and Chin-
ese subjects appeared, the shapes of the
glasses becoming more diverse. Colours
were not always used on these glasses, and
the subjects were often rendered in white
monochrome, sometimes with a faint tint
of blue or pink. Occasionally they followed
the motifs found on engraved glasses of the
period, such as hops, barley and the flower-
ing vine. Beilby glasses more often than
not have an opaque white enamel-twist
stem. Thomas Bewick became attached to
Mary Beilby, who unfortunately in her
early twenties suffered a paralytic stroke.
The brother and sister left Newcastle-on-
Tyne after the death of their mother in
1778, and went to Fife in Scotland, where
apparently they did not continue their
work.
Hi. 105 mm (4-15 in.)
BEAKER WITH CUTTING, GILDING AND
ENAMEL PAINTING
By Anton kothgasser, Vienna, Austria, r.1825
Hi. 115 mm (4-5 in.)
Many drinking and souvenir glasses with
translucent enamelling still exist which
were decorated by Samuel Mohn (horn
1762 in Weissenfels, died 1815 in Dresden)
and his son, Gottlob Samuel Mohn (born
1789 in Weissenfels and died 1825 in
Vienna). Their chief technical innovation
was the preparation of transparent enam-
els, in contrast with the heavy opaque
enamels used particularly in the 16th and
17th centuries. Samuel Mohn had pre-
viously been a painter of silhouettes on
porcelain. His son, who secured the
patronage of the Emperor, painted sil-
houettes on glass tumblers, as well as views
and allegorical figure-subjects. The Mohns
were among the first to cater for the market
for mementoes caused by the revival of
travel for its own sake, after the finish of
the Napoleonic wars. They worked on a
large scale, helped by apprentices, and
using transfer printing for outlines to
speed up the process, but the delicacy of
their paintings, usually on glasses in the
Ranfthecher form, makes these a worthy
item for collectors.
The Mohns’ discovery of transparent
enamels was further improved by a Vien-
nese porcelain and glass decorator, Anton
Kothgasser (1769-1851). He was a painter
from the Imperial Porcelain Factory, who
started working on stained glass with
Gottlob Mohn. He managed to make his
colours more brilliant than the Mohns’,
and made full use of yellow stain, or the
stain made from a compound of silver, as
used on stained glass windows. His glasses
are usually waistcd, with a heavy cut base
and sometimes lavishly gilt, as in the one
illustrated. Views of towns, portraits,
genre scenes and flowers, sometimes
copied, are featured in his work. His
glasses have been described as the finest
examples of the Viennese Biedermewr
style. Kothgasser and the Mohns had
many pupils and many imitators. In the-
same movement was Franz Anton Siebel
(1777-1842) of Lichtenfels in Upper
Franconia.
PERFUME BOTTLE IN COLOURLESS GLASS,
ENAMELLED AND GILT
Emile Galle, France, dated 1880
I li 157 mm (613 in.)
‘CROWN MILANO’ EWER WITH ROPE HANDLE
Ml. Washington Glass Company, U.S.A.
Ht. 254 mm (10 in.)
Emile Galle (1846 1904) the great French
glass-maker, is less well-known for his
enamelled work than for his work in the
field of cameo glass. Yet he was an expert
in the art of enamelling, and showed this
gift in his first major exhibition in Paris in
1878. It was there that he established his
reputation as an inventive and original
glass artist, using—among other tech-
niques—enamelled decoration on triple-
cased glass with gold leaf insertions. At the
exhibition in Paris in 1884 he showed
examples of clear colourless glass decorated
with enamelling, cutting and engraving.
At the 1889 Exhibition in Paris he showed
his finest works. His colours had taken on
a new softness, and a fresh note of lyricism
could be sensed in his work. The decisive
factor in his work seems to have been
Japanese art, and after 1889 he developed
to maturity the ‘nature-style’ that was to
epitomise his thoughts and ideas and was
to bring him his greatest fame. The
singular lyricism ol his work can be seen in
the enamelled perfume bottle illustrated.
An elegant painted and enamelled glass-
ware was produced by the Mt. Washington
Glass Company, New Bedford, Mass.,
towards the end of the 19th century. It was
first called ‘Albertine’, though a ware that
was the same in texture, shape and
decoration was advertised more cxotically
as ‘Crown Milano’ in about 1890. Unless
the perishable paper label survives, ‘Al-
bertine’ cannot be differentiated from
unmarked ‘Crown Milano’. Frederick S.
Shirley and Albert Steffin of that firm were
issued with a patent in 1886 for a means of
decorating an opal glassware. The articles,
which had a convex ribbed body, were
treated as follows: a perforated corrugated
stencil was laid against them; pulverised
carbon was dusted against this, which left
a design for the enameller to follow when
the stencil was taken away, so that there
was no distortion in the finished product.
When ‘Crown Milano’ was made, a blank
in white opal glass was shaped by free-
blowing, moulding or press-moulding.

Art Nouveau English Furniture: OCCASIONAL TABLE, TWO-TIER ETAGERE, DISPLAY CABINET, REVIVAL FURNITURE

WHILE SOME EDWARDIAN households
embraced the latest Art Nouveau forms, many returned to the furniture styles of the past and the latest Classical revivals. Designs from various historical periods were dusted off and reworked by companies throughout Britain. Inspiration ranged from the distant past – Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, and even Gothic – to the more recent Neoclassical work of Sheraton, Hepplewhite, and Robert Adam. The result was comfortable rather than cutting-edge, and less cluttered than the Victorian ideal.
Art Nouveau and Revival furniture were made in parallel to satisfy the needs of the less adventurous Edwardians as well as those who subscribed to
the latest fashions.
REVIVAL FURNITURE
The Revival trend had started in the late 19th century after a new series of interior design books, aimed at the middle classes, reignited the fashion for the three great names of British Neoclassical furniture. Then, in 1897, Sheraton’s The Cabinet-Maker and
Upholsterer’s Drawing Book and Hepplewhite’s The Cabinet-Maher and
Upholsterer’s Guide were reprinted and the Revival was confirmed. The result was a fusion of the work of these three designers, adapted to suit smaller
Edwardian rooms and a desire for comfort. It was also a rejection of the heavy, sombre furniture popular in Victorian times.
Revival furniture was often made from light mahogany, satinwood, or satin-birch, and decorated with stringing, crossbanding, and wooden inlays of fans or shells, set with bone, or painted with flowers and foliate scrolls. Decoration was often elaborate. Sometimes pieces were made from less exotic and expensive wood and
painted to resemble satinwood. Some designers slimmed down Sheraton’s designs to make them more delicate. This occasionally went too far and resulted in pieces that were spindly and out of proportion.
Others took the path of true imitation
and aimed to recreate Sheraton and
other Neoclassical designers exactly
Some of these pieces are so faithful to
the original that it takes an expert to tell them apart. Gillow of Lancaster and Edwards and Roberts of London are among the best of these furniture-makers, but many other firms made inexpensive copies for the mass-market. Many pieces were not marked by the makers, so attributing them can be difficult.
A STEADY DEMAND
Despite the volume of furniture made, much Edwardian furniture was of
good quality However, veneers were sometimes used to disguise poor construction. There was a great demand for desks; bookcases; chests-of-drawers; display cabinets; commodes; side, dining, and other chairs; tables including dining, occasional, and dressing; marble-topped washstands; bedside cupboards; and wardrobes that were frequently part of a bedroom suite.
Sofas were often based on Sheraton and Hepplewhite styles, but were less overblown than Victorian examples. Manufacturers made suites of chairs with matching sofas, usually from
mahogany, but sometimes walnut or satinwood. Seats were often upholstered in silk or damask, while the backs and sides were caned.
PRINCIPAL MAKERS
Important names in Edwardian furniture included Waring and Gillow and Maple and Co. Maples was based in Tottenham Court Road, London, and was the largest furniture store in the world. It made its own furniture
for sale at home and abroad, and drew its customers from both the middle and upper classes and even royalty – Tsar Nicholas of Russia furnished his Winter Palace with furniture from its workrooms. Maples also furnished British Embassies, even going so far as to arrange for a grand piano to be carried up the Khyber Pass on packhorses.
For those whose taste did not fit in with either the Revival or Art Nouveau movements, there was an opportunity to furnish their homes in an exotic
manner using the new bamboo and wicker furniture, or pieces with a Moorish or Japanese influence.

SIDE CHAIR
This is one of a pair of Sheraton Revival satinwood side chairs. The pierced, oval back is centred by a portrait of a young girl, and the seat is covered with caning. The front legs are turned. Early 20th century.
SATINWOOD VITRINE
The elegant proportions of this cabinet are characteristic of the Edwardian era, when furniture became more slender and delicate. Influences were diverse, but the painted swag decoration, medallions, and motifs typical of
Glass panels allow treasured objects to be displayed.
Painted swags and medallions are Classically inspired.
The casing and legs are slender and delicate.
the period, are Classical in style. The cornice and pediment are decorated with portrait-style paintings. Vitrines did not become common until the second half of the 19th century. This one bears a label from Maple & Co.
OCCASIONAL TABLE
This circular table is made from mahogany and has satinwood banding and floral marquetry. The square tapered supports are united by stretchers. Early 20th century.

LADY’S WRITING DESK
Probably made by Maple & Co, this rosewood and marquetry compact lady’s writing desk, or bonheur, du jour, has a raised, galleried back with lidded interior compartments. The inset-leather writing surface sits above three frieze drawers and the piece is raised on slender legs. c. 1905.
Elaborate drop handle
Classical inlay motif
ROLLTOP DESK
TWO-TIER ETAGERE
The lid of this satinwood marquetry-decorated piece opens to reveal a mechanical interior. Initially introduced in the 18th century, the rolltop desk was reinterpreted during the Art Nouveau period to meet changing tastes. Early 20th century.
This etagere is made of inlaid mahogany and satinwood banding. The top is formed from a later glass-based tray, and the piece stands on square, swept supports. Etageres were used for displaying objects or serving food.
Early 20th century.
This impressive mahogany cabinet has fine crossbanded decoration and an astragal-glazed door and panels. The cornice is centred with an architectural pediment and the base is decorated with fiddleback mahogany and satinwood lozenges on the central door and canted sides. The cabinet is supported on slender legs. Early 20th century.
DISPLAY CABINET

Berlin
The Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin (est. 1752) is best known for its superb porcelain made during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Neo-classicism was at its height. At this time Prussia was one of the most powerful states in Europe, and it became even stronger after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Its prosperity -was reflected in the great building schemes undertaken in Berlin and Potsdam, and some of the finest Neo-classical architecture of the age was designed by German architects such as Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841). Schinkel and the leading sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow ( 1764-18-50) were among prominent Contemporary artists commissioned to design porcelain in the rich Empire style associated with Napoleon, and in the Biedermeier style, a simpler, heavier, Classical sty le popular with the German middle classes. In contrast to many other European factories, which concentrated on reviving 18th-century styles, the Berlin factory continued to manufacture innovative and stylish wares and figures throughout the century.
BEFORE 1840
In the early 19th century Berlin’s particular speciality was wares with finely tooled gilt borders and gilt-ground sections framing sumptuous paintings, creating an opulent effect. In contrast to the vignettes popular in the 18th century, these paintings were highly finished so as to imitate works in oil, and none of the white porcelain was left showing. The most popular painted subjects included profile portraits (sometimes silhouettes) within oval medallions, and Classical themes, but the factory is most renowned for its fine topographical views depicting such celebrated buildings in Berlin as the Royal Palace and the Opera, or the scenery around Potsdam. Topographical views generally feature on cups and saucers, plates, and vases (where they are sometimes titled) intended for display.
Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, was an enthusiastic patron of the factory, commissioning and even designing table services for his palaces in Berlin and Potsdam. This tradition continued under Frederick William III; after the defeat of Napoleon, the King ordered elaborate Neo-classical services for both Prussian and foreign generals in celebration of their victory. The most famous of these is the “Prussian” service made between 1817 and 1819 for the Duke of Wellington, which is now displayed at Apsley House in London, his former residence.
One of the most significant developments in Europe during the first half of the 19th century was the increasing power and patronage of the middle classes,
a result of the economic boom brought by the Industrial Revolution. Instead of the elaborate table services made for royalty and aristocracy, there was much greater demand for single decorative pieces or small services. The factory adapted to the new market by producing large numbers of “cabinet” cups for display, generally cylindrical and often with covers, and similar to those made in Vienna. From c.1815 an elongated, slightly flared version, painted with portrait panels or Classical motifs, was introduced. Also typical of Berlin were octagonal tea services with fine paintings of ancient ruins, birds, or butterflies, surrounded with gilding and elaborate enamels imitating Roman mosaics and pietre dare (hardstone) panels.
Vases in a variety of sizes were popular for display and were a major part of the output of Berlin from c.1830. Based on antique forms such as urns and kraters, they were usually embellished with topographical paintings or elaborate Classical motifs in panels, surrounded by tooled gilt borders with Neo-classical motifs. The supreme technical and artistic quality of these vases was unmatched.
Like tablewares, figures were inspired by Classical models; they were usually left unpainted or unglazed, in imitation of antique statues, and set on simple cylindrical pedestals moulded with regular geometric borders. Although most of the subjects were allegorical or taken from Classical antiquity, the factory also made portraits of the Prussian royal family, and of Prussian generals who had defeated Napoleon. From the 1830s a figure of
the Princesses Louise and Frederike was mass-produced with a stepped base or plinth rather than a simple slab.
Portrait medallions in biscuit porcelain, mostly depicting the royal family, were also made on a large scale.
Porcelain Easter eggs were a distinctive product of the
Berlin factory from c.1820 to the end of the century. They were decorated all over with paintings reserved on coloured grounds.
LATER CLASSICAL AND OTHER STYLES
The Berlin factor y continued to make high-quality decorated porcelain until the end of the 19th century, even though there was a general decline in European porcelain manufacture because of competition from mass-produced goods. Most mid- and late 19th-century Berlin porcelain displays mainly Classical influences, while other factories such as Meissen concentrated on the revival of 18th-century Rococo models. However, such forms as vases became larger and heavier, and decoration often more ornate: the simple, angular shape for handles, for example, was replaced by animal heads.
Berlin’s tradition of treating porcelain primarily as a medium for painting reached its apogee c.1840 with the development of porcelain plaques. Like paintings, these were usually rectangular and enclosed in richly modelled gilt frames. They were sold as blanks to outside workshops and painted by independent decorators (Hausmaler). The very finely executed subjects were initially copies or details of Old Master works; however, during the last third of the 19th century the themes were less profound: exotic maidens in traditional costume, scantily clad nymphs among flowers, or rather sentimental religious subjects.
From c.18,50 Rococo Revival elements, such as curling scrollwork, flowers, and shells, appeared in the decoration of tablewares and vases. This decoration, combined with the gilded and coloured grounds and topographical views, resulted in an overdecorated effect. This would never have occurred in the 18th century, when restrained decoration was used to create balance. The factory also experimented in mid-century with the Renaissance Revival style by manufacturing copies of Italian Renaissance maiolica and 17th-century German stoneware. These pieces have much heavier forms than the originals. The production of figures at this time was confined mainly to busts and figures of the royal family, ladies in contemporary dress on pedestals, and a limited revival of 18th-century models of such subjects as pastoral figures and tradesmen.
During the 1870s the factory suffered severe financial setbacks, but Hermann Seger, appointed technical director in 18787
, revived its fortunes and ensured its future by developing a series of new glazes. The subtle glaze effects on Oriental porcelain were particularly fashionable in the late 19th century, especially after Japanese and Chinese ceramics were displayed at the numerous European international exhibitions. Seger was the first manufacturer in Europe to reproduce rich flambe and sang-de-boeuf glazes by developing the “Seger cones”, which allowed accurate control of firing temperatures. This type of Oriental-inspired porcelain was known as “Seger-Porzellan”, and the new technology was taken up in porcelain factories throughout Europe. The Berlin factory continues to produce fine porcelain today.
• BODY high-quality, white, hard-paste porcelain with a glassy glaze and a slightly cold, bluish tinge
Before c.1840
• STYLE restrained Neo-classical
• FORMS cabinet cups and saucers; Easter eggs
• DECORATION gilt borders finely tooled with Classical motifs; highly finished topographical paintings imitating oils; coloured and gilt grounds
After c.1840
• STYLE eclectic, combining both Rococo and Classical elements
• FORMS painted plaques with elaborate gilt frames
• DECORATION very ornate, with applied gilt motifs such as shells and curling scrollwork combined with coloured grounds and paintings; paintings of sentimental religious subjects or exotic maidens on plaques
Marks

Ceramic production during the reign of Hongzhi maintained the fine quality associated with wares produced in the Chenghua period. However, during the reign of Zhengde there was a notable decline in draughtsmanship and potting, which lasted until the end of the Ming Dynasty.
POLYCHROME WARES
From the Chenghua period the use of lead-fluxed, overglaze enamels became increasingly common. Underglaze blue was combined with these colours, which were fired a second time at a much lower temperature. On the finest wares known as doucai ..contrasted colours”) pieces, the outline of the design was traced in underglaze blue, and then yellow, green, aubergine-purple, and red enamels were painted on hcfore a second firing to create a jewel-like effect. Douche pieces arc generally small, fine, and extremely well made; decoration includes figures, plants, and animals, often in briefly painted landscapes. Wares include “chicken cups” – small wine-cups with designs of hens and cockerels with peonies.
The wucai (”five colours”) style, using the same palette as doucai, was introduced in the Jiajing reign period. While underglaze-blue outlines were still used, they were often replaced with overglaze black or red. The decoration developed along different lines, with fish, water-weed, ducks, and figure scenes becoming increasingly popular. Dragons appear in all manner of wises, with wings, and with flowers or jewels in their Months, arranged around bowls and jars or as circular medallions. Wucai decoration was used on large as well as small pieces and is generally not as neat or refined Lis doucai. The colour yellow, which had imperial connotations, was used together with bold designs of fruits and flowers in underglaze blue from the Xuande to the Jiajing reign period. For example, in the Zhengde period a common design consisted of green dragons on a white background, achieved by marking the design in wax resist then glazing the ground with white, firing, painting the reserved design in green enamel, and finally refiring at a lower temperature.
BLUE-AND-WHITE WARES
Blue-and-white wares made during the Chenghua period are regarded as some of the finest porcelains ever produced. Technically they arc superb, with light, thin bodies and a glassy glaze. The blue on early Chenghua pieces is dark – an almost blue-black associated with the use of imported cobalt; the later wares have a much lighter, clearer blue derived from local ore from the Raozhou Prefecture around Jingdezhen. It is applied very evenly, in designs of dragons and phoenixes, landscape scenes, or the very fine flower scrolls that adorn the so-called “Palace” ware. This was made in the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen, the most typical item being a bowl with everted rim, known as a “Palace” bowl.
The reign period of Hongzhi is largely a continuation of the Chenghua style, but it may be viewed as a watershed in the Ming dynasty since after it standards clearly began to decline. Even the best of the later Ming wares never reached the heights of the 15th-century work. As the 16th century advanced, the deterioration manifested itself in the increasing number of flaws in the poorly refined clay, and in the more casual brushwork, although the latter often has great appeal. During the reign of Jiajing the quality of blue improved. A rich, saturated purplish cobalt, termed “Muhammadan” blue, was introduced and was used on many porcelains in this and the later Ming reigns of Longqing and Wanli. Imperial quality wares are dressed in a thickish and smooth glassy glaze with a strong bluish cast. Almost all later Ming porcelains oxidized during firing, and while this thin reddish veneer may be worn by the passage of time, it is usually still visible at the margin of the glaze oil the base or foot rim.
EXPORT WARES
During the reign of Wanli the export of Chinese porcelain expanded, with large numbers of blue-and wares made purely for export. Among these pieces, kraak ware, which was produced from the Wanli period, is particularly important. It takes its name from the Dutch rendering of the Portuguese for “carrack”, Or merchant ship, two of which, carrying Chinese porcelain, were captured by the Dutch in 1602 and 1604. Kraak ware of this period has a fairly thin, light body, which is prone to chipping at the edges. The blue,
often evenly applied in washes, is inclined to be rather watery and thin.
The use of panels on bowls and dishes increased in the late 16th century; all wares of
this type are called kraak ware. On kraak howls and dishes the decoration radiates from a central circular panel. After c.1570 the most common
themes found on kraak porcelain are floral, including a highly stylized and barely recognizable form of the peony, lotuses, chrysanthemums, and other flowers issuing from rocks. Other motifs were also popular, such as precious objects or symbols tied with ribbons, and crickets, beetles, and butterflies.
DECORATIVE THEMES
Dragons and phoenixes remained the most important decorative motifs throughout the Ming period, but other designs also became increasingly popular. In the Chenghua period a very fine arrangement of lilies and Other flowers in underglaze blue seas used to decorate the exteriors of the dishes known as “Palace” bowls. Emperor Chenghua was a devout Buddhist, and this is reflected in the use of Buddhist symbols on some pieces from this period. During the reign of Zhengde, who was tolerant of the Islamic religion in China, a unique style of decoration using Arabic or Persian script was applied to a wide range of blue-and-white wares that were predominantly intended for the scholar’s desk. These included pen rests, small lamps, incense burners, and, in a few very rare instances, bowls. The script is enclosed within medallions against a background of scrolls and sometimes stylized lotus designs. These wares always carry the six-character mark of Zhengde, whereas almost all other dishes of this period have a four-character mark.
The decoration of 16th-century Ming wares is less refined, more chaotic in its arrangement, and much more freely drawn than that of the 15th century. The designs show the influence Of illustrations from popular literature, which was becoming widely available at this time. On wares of the Jiajing period, children, scholars, animals, and flowers are depicted in gardens, on terraces, or in open landscapes. Daoist subjects, for example the sage Laozi and the Eight Immortals (legendary or historical individuals who arc associated with the philosophy of Dao), were increasingly incorporated into the decoration on these wares, as were the associated symbols of long life, such as the lingzhi fungus, deer, cranes, peaches, pine trees, the Chinese character short (often elaborated into the form of a peach tree), and herons.
Doucai wares
• BODY fine white porcelain
• COLOURS underglaze-blue outlines with overglaze enamels in red, green, yellow, and aubergine
• SHAPES small, neat pieces: wine-cups, stem cups, howls, and jars
• DECORATION chickens and peonies; dragons, plants, and floral motifs; neat and jewel-like
Wucai wares• BODY white porcelain of variable quality
• COLOURS overglaze enamels in yellow, red, green, turquoise, and aubergine, with some outlines in red or [)lack and others in underglaze blue
• FORMS small and large pieces, such as huge cisterns
• DECORATION dragons, fish, landscapes, and figures; not as neatly drawn as doucai wares
Export wares
• BODY relatively thin and light porcelain of reasonable quality; the glaze has a tendency to break away from the edges in an irregular way – this is often referred to as “moth-eaten” or “tender” edges
• GLAZE highhigh
gloss, reasonably thick over the body, tending to be thin on the base
• SHAPES kendi (Hindu ritual vessels) and “Persian” flasks, jars, and dishesBLUE
• watery and thin, often applied in washes, sometimes rather silvery grey
• DECORATION division into panels radiating from a Central circular field, with animals, birds, plants, landscapes, or baskets of flowers, and often ribbons and medallions between the panels
• FOOT-RIM there is often grit in the glaze