Posts Tagged ‘medieval mounts’

The Exotic: the 1860s and 1870s
In the 18 6os hair went up again and earrings returned to favour. Their comeback was marked by a great variety of types and styles. Size fluctuated throughout the period, but grew to enormous proportions in the late i 86os and early 18’70s, when earrings almost rested on the shoulder. This fashion, although started in France and England, spread throughout Europe, and we also learn from an article in the trade-paper Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith of 187 5 that: ‘long pendent earrings are coming into fashion again in America.’
It was the great age of novelty. Women suspended from their ears any unusual and bizarre object they could think of. Among the favourite shapes for earring pendants
were windmills, buckets, shovels, hammers, hens brooding in baskets, and hum P. 78 ming birds. Even exotic creatures such as Brazilian beetles were suspended from ears
in the place of gemstones. Goldfish swimming in bowls were simulated by tinted in P 03 taglios. The Chinese-inspired ‘willow pattern’ is seen on many plate-shape gold earrings from 1870, enamelled in blue and white with the traditional pagoda, willow tree and figures on a bridge. Arrow earrings also appear to have been in great favour, P 79 either simply attached to the earlobe or designed in two sections so as to appear to transfix it.
Earrings of these types were not products of ‘haute joaillerie’ and not intended to be particularly artistic-, they were meant to be amusing and decorative, ‘novelty’jewellery to be worn for a season and then discarded. This explains firstly why they are always of little intrinsic value, being made of thin gold leaf decorated with enamel rather than gemstones, and secondly why few of them survive. They were certainly not the type of jewel to pass down in the family as an heirloom.
Interest in travel and advances in scientific knowledge together with the development of new industrial techniques, all affected the design of earrings around the middle of the century. New materials such as ‘Blue John’ or Derbyshire spar, lava from Vesuvius, colourful feathers of hummingbirds from Mexico, and beetles from Brazil, whose hard and green iridescent shell proved a successful and unusual sub-
stitute for gemstones, all made their appearance. The beetles were either simply at P. 107 tached to a gold hook to be inserted through the pierced earlobe or grouped more 126 elaborately in girandole arrangements. There were also exotic flowers, such as cas- P. roe
cades of stained ivory fuchsia blossoms; bunches of bulrushes set with turquoises baskets of flowers held by a hand, and acorns. The popularity of the latter is demon-
1o6 strated by its appearance among the drawings of Mellerio and by the firm’s ad-
vertisement in the magazine La Femme et la Famille et le Journal des Jeunes Personnel. p. 102, Animals were also favourite subjects; among the most amusing are frogs ready to
103 spring from bulrushes, nesting birds, brooding hens and coiled serpents entwined
with a vine spray. Hammers, ladders and well-pulleys with buckets reflect an interest P. 78 in industry. Although the fashion for novelty earrings appears to have started in
France, it assumed its most bizarre forms in England.
Classical revival
Another leitmotiv of i 9th-century jewellery is revivalism, a means of enriching the present by looking at the past. This had developed in the I 830S when designers such as Pugin in England and soon after Froment Meurice in France turned to Gothic art as a source of inspiration. Few examples of earrings in Gothic style are known, and those are usually made from Berlin iron, a material particularly well suited to reproducing Gothic tracery. The full bloom of revivalism occurs in the 18 6os and I 870s and this is particularly true of jewellery. The styles to be revived were mainly pre-Classical and Classical, Italian and French Renaissance and the period of Louis XVI.
Contemporary archaeological discoveries in Etruria and in the Greek Islands such as Knossos, Melos and Rhodes were bringing to light large quantities of exceptional ancient jewellery. The importance and popularity of earrings in antiquity was in some ways comparable to the 18 6os and 18 70s- It was natural, therefore, that antique shapes, designs and techniques were copied or reinterpreted in this period.
Among the leaders in this style were the Castellanis in Rome and Naples; they not only copied and reinterpreted the examples of the past but also set antique fragments such as engraved gemstones and coins as part of their interpretation of ancient jewellery. This is particularly evident in works like the gold and cornelian earrings set with Roman intaglios depicting a trophy of arms and a hunting scene.
P 97 Ernesto Pierret was another famous jeweller in Rome who produced earrings of Etrusco-Roman inspiration. A good example is the pair designed as a triangular panel decorated with bead-work and corded wire typical of Greek and Etruscan goldsmithwork flanked by baton motifs with spherical drop terminals probably inspired by the Roman crotalia which Pliny describes as ornaments designed to tinkle at every movement. This was a favourite motif for earrings and many examples survive where the baton-shaped drops are combined with various surmounts such as the Athenian owl with spread wings perched on a pediment.
The taste for Classical designs was widespread throughout Europe. Similar examples were produced by firms such as Robert Phillips in England and Eugene Fonte-
P 109 nay in France. Fontenay made great use of bead-work and corded wire in the mounts of his earrings, which were frequently set with carvings or enamel miniatures of scenes from Pompeian frescoes and had fringed drops and palmette or rosette surmounts.
Gold and pearl earring in archaeological revival style, circa 1870, inspired by the ancient Roman `crotalia’.
This archaeological fad was such that as early as 18 59 it became the target of satirical sketches. In ‘A Young Lady on the High Classical School of Ornament’, Punch (15 July 1859) depicted a devotee of the Antique style with an excess of jewels, tiara, hair ornaments, necklaces, bracelets, pendants and long earrings, all of Greek and Etruscan inspiration.
Some revivalist earrings derive specifically from well known antique prototypes while others are merely pastiches of different archaeological motifs. A good example
of the first type is the Etruscan a baule earring of 6th/5th century BC pedigree, which p. io, reappears, almost identical, in the late i 86os. It has one closed side, with a decoration of applied stylized flowerheads, rosettes and wirework typical of ancient examples. The enamel decoration is undoubtedly prompted by close examination of ancient a baule earrings, where inlays of glass paste, which unfortunately have barely survived, were used to enliven the decoration. This represents an attempt by the 19th-century jeweller to reproduce in its entirety the ancient prototype and stresses the past importance of polychrome work.
Subjects such as rams’ heads, miniature Eros figures riding birds, amphorae of p. 99, various shapes and blackamoors’ heads popular in late Classical Greek, Hellenistic and Etruscan earrings were revived in abundance. Not only were the forms derived from Antiquity but also the techniques: granulation was largely used — although never reaching the finesse of Antiquity — with wirework and beading to pick out details, and, as in the past, enamels were preferred to gemstones.
Other popular shapes of Antiquity which had never been related to ear ornaments were now converted into earrings, e.g., Carlo Giuliano’s miniature oil lamps decorated with black enamel, modelled on lamps used for votive offerings in temples and sanctuary precincts.
Even 19th-century ‘novelty’ materials such as lava from Vesuvius, Wedgwood jasper-ware and tortoiseshell were adapted to earrings inspired by the Antique. Somehow the frilliness typical of the 19th century creeps through the severe and linear shapes of archaeological Classicism, so that they could never be mistaken for
the real thing. This is particularly true of two pairs of earrings where Roman gold p. 98 low-relief and Greek amphorae are suspended from circular surmounts decorated with frivolous 19th-century flower motifs.
The typical fitting of all these earrings is a thin S-shaped gold hook inserted in the ear from front to back, at times secured, like many ancient examples, by an additional semicircular catch at the back.
Notable as a successful reinterpretation of Classical ideals is the emerald and diamond parure commissioned by Napoleon III from Mellerio; although its overall design is definitely archaeological, its pendent earrings of sober, sculptural shape p. 8o have no strict connection with any ancient prototype.
Besides Greek, Roman and Etruscan art, Egypt provided an important source of inspiration, not only in terms of shapes and designs but also of colour choice and com-bination. Interest in ancient Egypt was stimulated by the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 and by the contemporary excavations in the Nile Valley carried out and
P 96, published by Auguste Marlette. Falcons, papyri, mosaic or gold Pharaoh masks and
113 scarabs were soon fashionable motifs to adorn the ears, and dramatic combinations of bright colours such as lapis or turquoise blue, deep red and opaque white typical of Egyptian art gained favour throughout Europe.
Renaissance and 18th-century revival
The Renaissance revival, with its interest in sculptural and figurative shapes and enamel-work, began in the 1840s in France but did not affect earrings until the 18 6os and 18 70s. Among the influential jewellers working in this style was Carlo Giuliano, an Italian who spent most of his working life in England. Among his most
P. striking works is a pair of earrings in gold and polychrome enamel, opaque and translucent, each in the form of a stork devouring a serpent. In this case not only does the enamel technique and the bold sculptural shape remind us of the famous Renaissance figurative pendants, but the symbolism too is Renaissance; the stork devouring a snake standing for the soul overcoming carnal pleasure derives from a well known Renaissance emblem.
Fantastic creatures such as dragons and griffins with pronounced sculptural quality and the widespread use of polychrome enamels were typical of the French Renaissance revival. What gives away the fact that these belong to the 19th and not the 16th century is their passion for ornate and frilly detail, which always tends to creep in and
P. detract from the boldness of the sculptural effect. This is particularly evident in the
fringe of pearls and rosette surmount of the griffin earrings reproduced.
P 79 The gold, polychrome enamel and hardstone cameo earrings, each set with a cameo mask holding a floral festoon suspended from a tree-headed mask surmount, which the London jeweller John Brogden exhibited at the Paris Universal Exhibition oft867, although imbued with a certain Renaissance feeling, are closer to late i 8th-century Neoclassicism. The choice of differently coloured agate for the two cameos of Classical Dionysus masks is a rather unusual feature for the period. It is interesting that in this case both the original design and the finished jewels survive.
P. 74, In France, among other revivals, that of the Louis XVI style was particularly
77 favoured by the Empress Eug6me who, anxious to emulate Marie Antoinette in establishing in France a ‘grand’ monarchic tradition, revived, together with the crinoline, all the girandoles, bows and ribbon motifs of French 18th-century jewellery. She commissioned J. -E. Bapst, the famous French jeweller, to remount part of the crown jewels in Louis XVI style. The great majority of pendeloque and girandole earrings revived at this time in France were set with pearls and diamonds, but Eugenie’s favourite stone was the emerald, and it quickly became the most popular coloured gemstone in France.
Fin de sihle
As a consequence of the opening up of Japan to trade with Europe in the 18 5os and of the revolution there in 1866, Japanese art, until then little known in the West, started to exert considerable influence on the evolution of ornament and decoration. In the mid- i 870s it became popular in Europe to mount small pieces of Japanese metalwork as jewellery. Shakudo and shibuichi, the metal inlay techniques developed by Samurai swordmakers for the decoration of sword mounts and guards, entered the world of jewellery. Shibuichi and shakudo plaques and miniature fans decorated with flowers, butterflies, insects, birds and bamboo provided with a small suspension hook became very fashionable earrings and the Europeans soon began to imitate them in chased gold and silver. A good example is the pair of pendent earrings in the shape of a rectangular plaque decorated with fan-shaped motifs.
The increasing ease of travel in Europe encouraged interest in foreign countries and people liked to bring home souvenirs of the localities they visited. Italy with its sights and monuments was amongst the favourite destinations. Souvenir earrings are usually made of materials which are typical of a certain location: Roman mosaics, or micromosaic, made of minute glass tesserae depicting sights of Rome or scenes from the Campagna, and Florentine mosaic made of larger pieces of variously coloured inlaid semiprecious hardstone, usually in floral patterns, were extremely popular. Roman and Florentine mosaics had in fact been used in jewellery since the early i 800s; the earliest form of mosaic earrings consisted of a simple oval plaque connected to a smaller panel surmount with fine gold chains. Later examples dating from the i 86os and 187os are much more varied in shape and often reminiscent of archaeological revival designs. Early examples of Roman mosaic earrings have almost unbelievably tiny glass tesserae, producing a precision of detail which matches that of painting. Later examples are much coarser.
Among the plethora of 18 6os and 18 7os earrings another type can be clearly distinguished, known as the ‘fringe’ earring. This usually consists of a circular or oval surmount above a fringe of articulated pointed drops. It was popular throughout Europe but especially fashionable in England around 1870 where the drops tight-
Three earring designs in pencil and gouache of the late i 870s, from the archives of Mellerio, Paris. Note the fringe ornament typical of the time.
ened up to form a compact fringe of tapered gold chains in contrast to their Continental counterparts where the pendent elements are frequently fewer and well spaced. The distinction is clear if one compares the French designs illustrated in Mellerio’s archives with English examples set with carbuncles, Wedgwood jasperware plaques
P. 123 or decorated with white and royal blue or turquoise coloured enamel. The inset of small pearls or diamonds in a starshaped motif at the centre of the gemstone or enamelled boss surmount is another typical feature of jewellery of the time. Archaeological influence is frequently noticeable on the surmounts of these earrings. Most examples are fairly voluminous and long, measuring approximately 6 to io cms; in spite of this, their weight is negligible since the fringes that constitute a large portion
p. i 1 of the earring are made of hollow gold drops or of light gold chain. More expensive examples of diamond-set fringe earrings, though less common, are well known.
Naturalism in jewellery reached its peak in this period under the spell of the Parisian Oscar Massin, whose naturalistic and botanically accurate creations characterized by tremblant and pampille decoration became a model for jewellers throughout Europe. Cascades of flowerheads, sprays of leaves and flowers and single flowerhead
P. 124, clusters were to be seen on grand occasions. The designs by Mellerio and by the Ger-
125 man Frederick Kreuter reproduced here illustrate the variety of forms fashionable at the time.
The star motif had been popular in jewellery since the 18 6os. At first its design was exploited mainly for brooches, and only in the late 18 6os was it introduced into earring design. Typical of this date are earrings mounted with large carbuncles, amethyst cabochons or enamelled gold bosses inlaid at the centre with a pearl or diamond
p. 116, star-shaped motif. In other examples the whole earring takes on the shape of a star
117 suspended by a simple hook from the ear. The basic six-pointed star offered scope for many variations: the points could multiply up to eighteen, of different lengths and widths. In the late 18 8os and 189os knife-wire settings came into favour and this, together with a taste for light and less symmetrical shapes, prompted the creation of elaborate earrings in the form of off-centre stars, comets and shooting stars. The favourite gemstones for this type of ornament were diamonds since they could best suggest real stars; less expensive versions were set with half pearls and very pale opals. Many sets were made in this style, comprising earrings, a brooch, and a necklace which could also be worn as a tiara; a design by Mellerio commissioned by Queen Isabella II of Spain is a good example.
Towards the end of the century the fashion for large and varied earrings subsided in favour of smaller and more sober ear ornaments, either clusters or single gemstones, simply claw- or collet-set in very unobtrusive, delicate mounts provided at the back with a flattened hoop fitting. The fashionable design for daywear in the 18 gos consisted simply of a single pearl embellished with small diamonds. At night the favourite earring would be a single diamond of varying size. The change towards smaller earrings was this time dictated not so much by hairstyles, since the ears were
Four ink designs for pendent earrings by Kreuter, Germany, 1867-70. The top one is star shaped; the second and fourth decorated with star and fringe motifs; and the third with a fringe only.
A collection of North Italian gold
pendent earrings, circa i 800. Their large size, linearity and two-dimensional, geometrical quality are typical of early t9th-century earrings in Europe. Many include a central plaque in relief stamped out of a thin sheet of gold, to simulate a cameo with a profile of a Classical warrior, a type of imagery which had become popular at the time of the Napoleonic campaign in Northern Italy Of 1796-97. Note the contrast between the austere profiles and the delicate lace-like filigree border decorated with typical hollow hemispherical motifs.
still left uncovered, as by the fashion for high frilled collars during the day and for the ‘collier de Chien’, or dog collar, at night, both of which dressed the neck and filled in the space between ears and shoulders. Long pendent earrings which visually interfered with high collars and neck ornaments disappeared almost completely. The few pendent earrings of the 189os were of moderate size, in the shape of very delicate pearl and diamond articulated drops which moved and reflected light.
The discovery of the Cape diamond mines in South Africa brought a plentiful supply of fine stones onto the market. A single, large, flawless, white diamond of high quality was now usually preferred to a fussy arrangement of small stones. The new abundance of diamonds also led to new ways of cutting: cushion-shaped diamonds, fat and bulky in order to retain the maximum carat weight of precious material, became thinner and circular in shape, with the culet or back facet reduced to a pin-point, thus exploiting to the maximum the exceptional optical quality of diamonds to reflect and disperse light. The new brilliant cut involved a waste of up to 5o% of the rough crystal but the final result was thought to be worth it.
Apart from diamonds, a variety of other stones were set in cluster earrings; often a larger coloured stone would be mounted within a border of smaller diamonds. Black Australian opals, together with pale and metallic sapphires from Montana, appeared on the market in the 189os; amethysts and peridots were great favourites and with their purple and lime green colours well complemented the pastel tints of contemporary dresses. In the 189os pearls and half-pearls were the preferred alternative to the more expensive diamond borders and with their delicate sheen particularly suited the soft silks in fashion during the last decade of the century.
The Art Nouveau movement, which reacted against the repetitiveness and lack of imagination in the decorative arts and jewellery and challenged the excessive emphasis placed on intrinsic value, promoted many new, original and daring designs — but not for earrings. There are hardly any Art Nouveau earrings, and the few that survive must be considered exceptions. An extraordinary pair created by Rene Lalique is definitely a ‘one off’. They are typical in their choice of less expensive materials (large milky opals, translucent enamels echoing the colour of the opals, richly coloured matt gold) and in the flowing line of the decorative thistle motif rendered in enamel at the front and engraved at the back. But they are unique in their unconventionally large size and their detachable clip fitting, a feature which became normal only in the I 930s. It is possible that such clip fittings were devised to allow the earrings to be worn as necklace pendants.

Meissen
The attempts by Count Marcolini, director of Meissen from 1774, to improve the quality of Meissen porcelain were not entirely successful, and at the beginning of the 19th century the factory was still in decline. There were several reasons for this: competition from other porcelain factories in Europe, mass production, and the effects of the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). When Marcolini retired in 18 14, production was at a level j t high enough to keep the factory open.
Until the mid-19th century mass production grew steadily, thus reducing costs and meeting demand. From the 1820s the factory kept pace with new developments by using “round” kilns that led to a fourfold increase in production, and introducing new techniques and products. In the late 1820s gloss-gilding was introduced; this inexpensive method of decoration used gold mixed in a solution, which was applied to the porcelain. The time-consuming method of hand-pressing clay into moulds to produce plates with moulded decoration was replaced by pouring slip into glass moulds. One of the new mass-produced items was the lithophane (a thin, translucent plaque with moulded decoration that can be viewed by transmitted light), made from 1829, featuring religious or sentimental subjects.
The 19th-century international exhibitions popularized both new and historical styles by displaying artifacts from different cultures and civilizations, and manufacturers copied these objects using new techniques. Taste was now led by the bourgeoisie, and manufacturers’ output became more diverse to meet demand. More than one fashion was often popular at any one time, so 19th-century objects often display a bizarre combination of styles. The Biedermeier style was introduced c.1830; wares are similar in form to earlier Neo-classical pieces but are heavier, and have less elaborate decoration, often being painted with topographical views.
From the early 1830s the Rococo style was revived, and Meissen enjoyed a renaissance owing to its re-use from the late 1840s of 18th-century figure moulds. Rococo Revival figures and wares were greatly
in demand and formed the bulk of the factory’s production during the second half of the 19th century. Produced under the supervision of the chief modeller, Ernst August Leuteritz (1818-93), these figures are of Such typical 18th-century subjects as shepherds and shepherdesses, the aristocracy, and allegorical figures of the Seasons and the Four Continents. They can be distinguished from the originals by their hard, shiny gilding, harsh colours, and overelaborate decoration, such as intricate lacework, made by dipping real lace into the paste. The most notable Meissen products in other revival styles made during the second half of the 19th century include plates and cups and saucers of the 1840s, moulded or painted with Gothic arches and tracery patterns, and blue-ground krater vases painted with Classical scenes imitating medieval and Renaissance enamels. From the 1860s large-scale Renaissance Revival vases, often painted with flowers and blue-ground sections and with curling snake handles, became increasingly popular. From the 1870s the factory produced figures in contemporary costume, although these were outweighed by the number of Rococo and Neo-classical reproductions.
KEY FACTS
• BODY pure white hard-paste porcelain with a distinctive hard, glassy glaze
• STYLES Empire, Biedermeier, Rococo Revival, Neo-classical, Renaissance and Gothic Revivals
• PALETTE harsh versions of 18th-century colours, such as a strong pink and a yellowish green; figures covered completely with paint; hard, shiny gloss-gilding
• DECORATION encrusted flowers; topographical views on Biedermeier wares
Example
mythological figure group of a maiden sitting on a Neoclassical stool, binding Cupid’s wings with a ribbon, was
produced using a model that had originally been made by Christian Gottlieb Juchtzer, one of the modellers working at Meissen in the Neo-
classical style during the late 18th century The rather harsh palette, so typical of 19th-century Meissen figures and wares,
is especially
evident in the
red drapery over
the attendant’s
shoulder, which would never have been used on an 18th-century figure.