Posts Tagged ‘ming dynasty’

The beginnings of Portuguese faience are obscure, and prior to the 17th century few pieces can be attributed with any certainty. Although written records indicate that there was production from at least the 13th century, evidence is sparse until the 16th century, when there appears to have been a flowering in this craft. In 1552 there were ten potteries in Lisbon alone. It is most likely that the industry was boosted by migrant potters, perhaps from Italy, France, or The Netherlands. While some European-type wares were made, including Italian-Style albarelli and late 19th-century wares in the style of the French potter Bernard Palissy \ (c.1510-90), 10-90), the most
wares were those decorated in the manner of Chinese export porcelain made during the late Ming Dynasty ( 1368-1644), indicating the importance of the
Portuguese trade with China at this time.
Although some of these mainly blue-and-white wares are fairly fine renditions of Chinese porcelain, most have a crowded market-place appeal, with robustly drawn if somewhat garbled motifs in what is known as the “Sinn-Portuguese” style. Motifs include the Fight Precious Things (including the artemisia leaf and the musical stone, which often appear in the broad panelled borders of dishes). With time, these designs became simplified or formalized: Chinese-border sunflowers evolved into spiky demi-lines or a radiating scale pattern; the artemisia leaf began to resemble a spider. The compartmentalized borders taken from kraal: porcelain were retained, although the diverse semi-geometric patterns of the late Ming style were replaced by a simple “cross-stitch” trellis design.
AFTER 1700
During the 18th century Portuguese faience was strongly influenced by  French potteries, especially those in Rouen,    the Portuguese wares were never as meticulously drawn as the French. In general Portuguese faience produced in Lisbon, Oporto, Coimbra, and other potteries is very similar in feeling to provincial French faience. Furthermore, there was clearly a reluctance to advance or to experiment with new designs, so wares often seem old-fashioned – the formal Baroque style of early 18th-century Rouen wares is still found in the middle of the century or even later. This time-lag can also be seen on high Rococo faience, the style
being maintained until beyond the end of the 18th century. The most important pottery centres were
given a great incentive in 1770 when
a ban was imposed on all imported porcelain, save that from East Asia, which boosted domestic production.
In the 19th century, in keeping with the European trend, Portuguese potters produced considerable quantities of revival wares, borrowing indiscriminately from the classic wares of Italy, France, and The Netherlands. Among the more frequently encountered types are the lead-glazed wares made in Caldas da Rainha that were based on the wares of Bernard Palissy – dishes or hollow-wares with applied reptiles, covered in dark lead glazes. Nineteenth-century wares were skilfully potted and painted. Much late 19th- and 20th-
century pottery is traditional in feel,
using an Italianate or a debased Ming
export style. In the latter category,
deer and rabbits cavort amid
formal small-scale vegetation,
mostly painted in blue with
brown outlines. This refined
material may have a silky-smooth
glaze of slightly pinkish tone.

•    Body- generally fairly crude; less refined than Spanish
wares
•    GLAZE quite gritty
•    DECORATION usually very  schematic and quickly executed; 17th-century bloc-and-white wares: outlined in manganese brown, based on Chinese late Ming and Transitional porcelain; 18th-century faience: inspired by French faience; 19th-Century wares: inspired by 16th-century Palissy wares
•    FEATURES flatware was generally fired on a triangular
arrangement of pins visible on the underside of the  flangeIMPORTANT
•     CENTRES OF PRODUCTION Lisbon, Oporto, Coimbra, Caldas da Rainha
Marks
Before c.177() Portuguese wares were rarely marked
Lisbon: Royal factory of Rato (1767-183.5); mark for wares made under Brunetto (1767
Caldas da Rainha: Mafra factory (est. 1853); Mark for wares made under Manuel Gomel (active 1853-7)

Qing before 1800
Following the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty by the Qing Dynasty in 1644, production at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province was severely disrupted until 1677, when one of the classic eras of porcelain production began. This lasted until c.1750.
BLUE-AND-WHITE WARES
Blue and white dominated the export market during this period, but these wares were not prominent among the ceramics made at the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen. Before 1800 Qing imperial blue-and-white wares tended to imitate early Ming versions, particularly from the Yongle (1403-24) and Xuande (1426-35) reign periods, with decoration that was carefully spaced. The designs on these pieces are generally formal, measured arrangements showing stylized lotus flowers among scrolling foliage. The blue was applied in imitation of the “heaped and piled” effect that connoisseurs so admired in the early Ming wares. Often the reign mark used on those wares was used again in deference to the earlier period.
ENAMELLED WARES
Enamelled porcelains came into their own during the Qing period, replacing blue-and-white wares as the focus of technical and artistic innovation. The technical advances signalled by the development of famille-verte and famille-rose wares greatly enhanced the decorative possibilities of the medium, while the body had now become so refined and delicate as to be the perfect foil for artistic virtuosity. Increasingly, the white porcelain was not so much decorated as painted in the manner of silk-scroll painting.
The famille-verte palette was first introduced during the late 17th century as a development of the wucai palette. In early famille verte the blue is applied under the glaze in the Ming wucai style, but distinguished from it by a generally brighter palette. In the mature famille verte, which dates from the last years of the 17th century, the blue was applied over the glaze and is transparent. Gold was sometimes applied to famille verte wares of the early 18th century. The designs on these wares tended to be detailed representations of nature, including dramatic rocky landscapes and flowers, or precious objects such as classic vases and items for the scholar’s desk.
The famille-rose palette was created c.1720, at the end of the Kangxi reign period. The palette is named after one of the constituent colours – opaque pink enamel, which was achieved using gold. The palette also includes Lin opaque white and yellow that made blending and shading of colours possible in a way that could not be achieved with the transparent colours of the familleverte palette. This gave rise to the exquisitely refined decoration seen on porcelain of the Yongzheng period, with ink-and-wash-style landscapes or
naturalistic depictions of flowers and fruit
rendered in a painterly style against superbly
clear white backgrounds. Among the most
refined Yongzheng and Qianlong wares are
famille-rose wares known as guyuexuan, which were painted in the imperial workshops. Some of these bear poetic lines or calligraphic designs, and they were copied widely in the 20th century.
MONOCHROMES
In this period monochromes were the ceremonial wares used by the emperor and had to be of the very finest quality. In the early 18th century copper-red glazes, which had been so highly prized in the early Ming period, were reintroduced. However, as a result of a longer firing time, these new colours are not as resonant and fresh as their earlier Counterparts, and they can be distinguished from the originals by the extra laver of clear glaze over the copper red. Copper oxide was also used to make the so-called “peachbloom” glaze, which was introduced at this time and applied to a limited range of small wares intended for the scholar’s table, including water droppers and brush rests. This glaze is characterized by the combination of a pinkish red and a cloudy greenish bloom, creating a colour reminiscent of the blush on a ripening peach.
REIGN MARKS
The practice of marking imperial wares with the name of a reign period was introduced during the early 15th century, and continued to the end of the Qing period. Either four or six (or, in very rare cases, eight) characters were inscribed in underglaze blue, and often enclosed within a double circle. In the Yongzheng period, seal-script reign marks became common, and during the succeeding Qianlong period they were the norm. Conventional script became popular again at the end of the 19th century. Reign marks should not be taken at face value when dating a piece, since it was common practice to inscribe wares with the mark of art earlier reign period, particularly those of the much-esteemed Nling period and especially of Emperor Chenghua (1465-87). This was not so much a question of fraud as of admiration for and imitation of antiquity.
The experimentation with monochrome glazes resulted in many innovative effects, such as the speckled turquoise and dark-bloc “robin’s-egg” glaze, which is thought to have been inspired by the Jun wares of the Song period. The “teadust” glaze is created when iron oxide is underfired, resulting in a mottled green on a yellowish-brown background. The “iron-rust” glaze is
a streaked reddish-brown with a metallic sheen, achieved by cooling the ware very rapidly after firing. The pale-little Clair-de-lone glaze was created by incorporating a very small amount of cobalt blue and was applied only to the most delicate wares.
“ARCHAIC” WARES
The Qing emperors, especially Qianlong, were avid collectors of antiquities, and many Qing imperial ceramics closely imitate ancient models. This is particularly evident in the traditional forms that were favoured, which include pastiches of early bronzes and jades and also of classic ceramics of the Song and Ming Dynasties; some wares were made using a combination of the two forms. The Qing potters also tried to re-create the glazes applied to the archaistic pieces of the Song period; these included thick, crackled glazes used on Guan wares. The Qing copies are generally smoother and shinier than the originals.
Qing reign periods Shunzhi ( 1644-6 1 ) Kangxi(1662-1722) Yongzheng (1723-35) Qianlong ( 1736-95) Jiaqing (1796-1820)
Daoguang ( 182 1 —50) Xianfeng (1851-61)
Tongzbi ( 1862-74)
Guangxu (1875-1908) Xuantong (1909-11 )
• BODY very fine white porcelain
• POTTING extremely neat with smooth, rounded foot-rims, the bases of bowls and dishes arc flat, unlike the slightly convex form of the bases of Ming wares; there are no visible joins on vases and pots
• GLAZES a wide range of innovative glazes appears on monochromes; imitations of crackled Song-period Guan glazes are found on “archaic” pieces
• ENAMELS many colours enhanced with opaque white and yellow in the famille-rose palette, permitting shading and more decorative potential
• FORMS small, fine pieces for delicate porcelains as well as imitations of archaic bronze and jade forms
• Di CORATION blossoming and fruiting branches
rendered in a painterly manner; emblems of good luck, such as the characters sbou (long life) and fu (bat), are often integrated into the designs
Reign marks
Reign marks for Shunzhi and Kangxi are always written in conventional script; for the period of Yongzheng they may be written in the same manner or in seal script; Qianlong, Jiaqing and Daoguang are usually done in seal characters; from the Xianfeug reign onward, marks may be written in either style

Ceramic production during the reign of Hongzhi maintained the fine quality associated with wares produced in the Chenghua period. However, during the reign of Zhengde there was a notable decline in draughtsmanship and potting, which lasted until the end of the Ming Dynasty.
POLYCHROME WARES
From the Chenghua period the use of lead-fluxed, overglaze enamels became increasingly common. Underglaze blue was combined with these colours, which were fired a second time at a much lower temperature. On the finest wares known as doucai ..contrasted colours”) pieces, the outline of the design was traced in underglaze blue, and then yellow, green, aubergine-purple, and red enamels were painted on hcfore a second firing to create a jewel-like effect. Douche pieces arc generally small, fine, and extremely well made; decoration includes figures, plants, and animals, often in briefly painted landscapes. Wares include “chicken cups” – small wine-cups with designs of hens and cockerels with peonies.
The wucai (”five colours”) style, using the same palette as doucai, was introduced in the Jiajing reign period. While underglaze-blue outlines were still used, they were often replaced with overglaze black or red. The decoration developed along different lines, with fish, water-weed, ducks, and figure scenes becoming increasingly popular. Dragons appear in all manner of wises, with wings, and with flowers or jewels in their Months, arranged around bowls and jars or as circular medallions. Wucai decoration was used on large as well as small pieces and is generally not as neat or refined Lis doucai. The colour yellow, which had imperial connotations, was used together with bold designs of fruits and flowers in underglaze blue from the Xuande to the Jiajing reign period. For example, in the Zhengde period a common design consisted of green dragons on a white background, achieved by marking the design in wax resist then glazing the ground with white, firing, painting the reserved design in green enamel, and finally refiring at a lower temperature.
BLUE-AND-WHITE WARES
Blue-and-white wares made during the Chenghua period are regarded as some of the finest porcelains ever produced. Technically they arc superb, with light, thin bodies and a glassy glaze. The blue on early Chenghua pieces is dark – an almost blue-black associated with the use of imported cobalt; the later wares have a much lighter, clearer blue derived from local ore from the Raozhou Prefecture around Jingdezhen. It is applied very evenly, in designs of dragons and phoenixes, landscape scenes, or the very fine flower scrolls that adorn the so-called “Palace” ware. This was made in the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen, the most typical item being a bowl with everted rim, known as a “Palace” bowl.
The reign period of Hongzhi is largely a continuation of the Chenghua style, but it may be viewed as a watershed in the Ming dynasty since after it standards clearly began to decline. Even the best of the later Ming wares never reached the heights of the 15th-century work. As the 16th century advanced, the deterioration manifested itself in the increasing number of flaws in the poorly refined clay, and in the more casual brushwork, although the latter often has great appeal. During the reign of Jiajing the quality of blue improved. A rich, saturated purplish cobalt, termed “Muhammadan” blue, was introduced and was used on many porcelains in this and the later Ming reigns of Longqing and Wanli. Imperial quality wares are dressed in a thickish and smooth glassy glaze with a strong bluish cast. Almost all later Ming porcelains oxidized during firing, and while this thin reddish veneer may be worn by the passage of time, it is usually still visible at the margin of the glaze oil the base or foot rim.
EXPORT WARES
During the reign of Wanli the export of Chinese porcelain expanded, with large numbers of blue-and wares made purely for export. Among these pieces, kraak ware, which was produced from the Wanli period, is particularly important. It takes its name from the Dutch rendering of the Portuguese for “carrack”, Or merchant ship, two of which, carrying Chinese porcelain, were captured by the Dutch in 1602 and 1604. Kraak ware of this period has a fairly thin, light body, which is prone to chipping at the edges. The blue,
often evenly applied in washes, is inclined to be rather watery and thin.
The use of panels on bowls and dishes increased in the late 16th century; all wares of
this type are called kraak ware. On kraak howls and dishes the decoration radiates from a central circular panel. After c.1570 the most common
themes found on kraak porcelain are floral, including a highly stylized and barely recognizable form of the peony, lotuses, chrysanthemums, and other flowers issuing from rocks. Other motifs were also popular, such as precious objects or symbols tied with ribbons, and crickets, beetles, and butterflies.
DECORATIVE THEMES
Dragons and phoenixes remained the most important decorative motifs throughout the Ming period, but other designs also became increasingly popular. In the Chenghua period a very fine arrangement of lilies and Other flowers in underglaze blue seas used to decorate the exteriors of the dishes known as “Palace” bowls. Emperor Chenghua was a devout Buddhist, and this is reflected in the use of Buddhist symbols on some pieces from this period. During the reign of Zhengde, who was tolerant of the Islamic religion in China, a unique style of decoration using Arabic or Persian script was applied to a wide range of blue-and-white wares that were predominantly intended for the scholar’s desk. These included pen rests, small lamps, incense burners, and, in a few very rare instances, bowls. The script is enclosed within medallions against a background of scrolls and sometimes stylized lotus designs. These wares always carry the six-character mark of Zhengde, whereas almost all other dishes of this period have a four-character mark.
The decoration of 16th-century Ming wares is less refined, more chaotic in its arrangement, and much more freely drawn than that of the 15th century. The designs show the influence Of illustrations from popular literature, which was becoming widely available at this time. On wares of the Jiajing period, children, scholars, animals, and flowers are depicted in gardens, on terraces, or in open landscapes. Daoist subjects, for example the sage Laozi and the Eight Immortals (legendary or historical individuals who arc associated with the philosophy of Dao), were increasingly incorporated into the decoration on these wares, as were the associated symbols of long life, such as the lingzhi fungus, deer, cranes, peaches, pine trees, the Chinese character short (often elaborated into the form of a peach tree), and herons.
Doucai wares
• BODY fine white porcelain
• COLOURS underglaze-blue outlines with overglaze enamels in red, green, yellow, and aubergine
• SHAPES small, neat pieces: wine-cups, stem cups, howls, and jars
• DECORATION chickens and peonies; dragons, plants, and floral motifs; neat and jewel-like
Wucai wares• BODY white porcelain of variable quality
• COLOURS overglaze enamels in yellow, red, green, turquoise, and aubergine, with some outlines in red or [)lack and others in underglaze blue
• FORMS small and large pieces, such as huge cisterns
• DECORATION dragons, fish, landscapes, and figures; not as neatly drawn as doucai wares
Export wares
• BODY relatively thin and light porcelain of reasonable quality; the glaze has a tendency to break away from the edges in an irregular way – this is often referred to as “moth-eaten” or “tender” edges
• GLAZE highhigh
gloss, reasonably thick over the body, tending to be thin on the base
• SHAPES kendi (Hindu ritual vessels) and “Persian” flasks, jars, and dishesBLUE
• watery and thin, often applied in washes, sometimes rather silvery grey
• DECORATION division into panels radiating from a Central circular field, with animals, birds, plants, landscapes, or baskets of flowers, and often ribbons and medallions between the panels
• FOOT-RIM there is often grit in the glaze

Yuan and early Ming
During the Mongol occupation and the early reigns of the Ming Dynasty, momentous changes occurred at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province. The kilns came under imperial patronage, and fine porcelain with underglaze decoration supplanted the glazed stonewares of the Song period as the most desirable form of ceramic. Exported Longquan celadons remained a vital source of revenue for the government.
PORCELAIN
Although porcellaneous wares had been made from the late 6th century, it was at Jingdezhen that porcelain developed to its full potential. The addition of kaolin (china clay) to the batch made it possible to make much larger pieces than before. Shu fu wares, which take their name from the two moulded Chinese characters shit and fu (”Privy Council”) found on their interiors, arc of thickly potted white porcelain with an opaque, greyish-white glaze; these were made during the Yuan period for the Ministry of Military and Civil Affairs.
UNDERGLAZE BLUE-AND-RED DECORATION
The use of underglaze decoration probably dates
from c.1330. Cobalt imported from Persia was applied directly onto the unfired body, which was then glazed and fired. Copper oxide, which fires red, was often used in combination with underglaze blue in the earliest painted wares of Jingdezhen, and by the late 14th century it was used on its own. Copper is much more volatile than cobalt and many of these pieces are flawed, the red being greyish and dull.
In 1368, after the Mongols were finally expelled from China, the Ming Emperor Hongwu (1368-98) imposed a strict trade embargo, and foreign cobalt became very rare. The use of copper oxide therefore became more widespread, and copper monochromes were introduced, reaching their peak in the reign of Xuande (1426-35). The Yongle (1403-24) and Xuande reign periods are also regarded as belonging to the classical era of blue and white, when foreign cobalt was once again in plentiful supply. The blue tended to filter through the glaze, creating an effect known as “heaped and piled”, much imitated during the Qing period.
Longquan
• FORMS abandonment of archaic forms in favour of large platters and forms dictated by the export market
• GLAZE thinner and more olive than on Song wares
• DECORATION very little space left undecorated
Qinghai
• FORMS large pieces made possible by the addition of kaolin to the paste
• DECORATION increasingly ornate, with little space left undecorated; beading and Buddhist figures common
Shu fu
• BODY thickly potted porcelain
• GLAZE opaque, greyish-white and waxy
• DECORATION may have moulded Chinese characters
shu and it scarcely visible under the glaze; moulded floral decoration on the inside and incised decoration on the outside
Blue-and-white wares
• FORMS bottles, bulbous wine jars, and large platters
(many with bracketed rims) for the export market
• GLAZE viscous in the Yuan period and inclined to
the pitted “orange-peel” effect in the early Ming
• BLUE dark speckled blue, known as “heaped and piled”, on some Xuande and Yongle pieces
• DECORATION themes include fish among aquatic plants, flower motifs, grapes, and vine tendrils (specifically for the export market)
• STYLE crowded arrangements in the Yuan, but elegant, harmonious spacing in the Yongle and Xuande periods