Posts Tagged ‘Neo-classical’

Antique Engraved Glass

Engraving, whereby a decorative pattern is finely cut onto the surface of the glass, dates back to Roman times. The very earliest types of engraving were diamond-point engraving, which involves scratching fine lines into the glass with a sharp instrument (usually a diamond stylus), and wheel engraving, where the design is cut into the glass by means of a rotating
wheel. Stipple engraving, a more sophisticated form of diamond point engraving, where patterns of tiny dots rather than lines at used to create a shaded design, was first used from c.1621 acid etching, which involves burning a design out of the top layer of glass with acid, evolved with the invention
hydrofluoric acid c.1770 and was widely used in Britain.
Although glass was engraved from Roman times, and examples of fine engraving exist on 15th–century Venetian glass, the widespread use of such techniques as diamond-point and stipple engraving dates mainly from the second half of the 16th century. These techniques were introduced to decorators in the Low Countries by itinerant Venetian glassworkers. Wheel engraving was first used in Germany in the late 16th century.
DIAMOND-POINT AND STIPPLE ENGRAVING Diarnond-point engraving, in which the design or decoration is scratched onto the surface of the glass by a sharp diamond stylus, is particularly suited to thin-walled glass too hard to withstand wheel engraving. It was the only engraving technique suitable to
be used on delicate cristallo glass. Diamond-point engraving was therefore quite common on 15th-century Venetian and later facon de Venice (”in the style of Venice”) glass. However, the technique did not reach its apogee until it was taken up in the Low Countries during the 17th century, where it was carried out by both amateur (those who decorated glass as a hobby) and professional glass decorators. Anna Roemers Visscher (1583-1651) was an amateur glass decorator in Amsterdam, where she engraved delicate designs of flowers, fruit, and insects, as well as lines of poetry in calligraphic script, on beakers and Romer (a type of drinking glass). Another distinguished amateur glass decorator, Willem Jacobsz van Heemskerk (1613-92), in Leiden, produced most notably free-flowing calligraphic designs on such wares as bulbous serving bottles and jugs. Among the best-known professional engravers was Willem Mooleyser (active 1685-97), from Rotterdam, who used diamond-point engraving on bowls, flasks, goblets, and Romer.
In stipple engraving, which is a development of diamond-point engraving, a stylus is very gently tapped on the glass to make a design built up of small dots; these dots create areas of light (dense areas of dots) and shade (sparse areas of dots) to create the delicate design. The detail may be so fine that the design will Only be seen clearly when the glass is held to the light. Common designs include portraits and allegorical Subjects. Examples of stipple-engraved glass are rare,
as the technique is slow, extremely difficult, and requires great skill and patience.
As with diamond-point engraving, the most notable designs were produced by glass decorators from the Low Countries. Visscher introduced the technique to The Netherlands c.1621, but perhaps the best-known exponent was Frans Greenwood (1680-1761), an amateur glass decorator in Dordrecht who employed the technique exclusively from c.1722. He incorporated floral and fruit motifs and also copied designs from contemporary mezzotints and paintings. One of his followers was David Wolff (1732-98),
), a painter who
produced his own designs and portraits. Some of Wolff’s pieces are signed and his style inspired other artists towards the end of the century; such pieces are commonly known as “Wolff” glass. Another follower of Greenwood was the painter and engraver Aert Schouman ( 1710-92). Greenwood, Wolff, and Schouman all mainly worked on glass thought to have been made in the factories around Newcastle-upon-Tyne in northern England, which made a soft glass that was better suited to the stippling technique than the more brittle soda glass.
WHEEL ENGRAVING
In wheel engraving, a mechanical wheel fed with an abrasive paste (typically a mix of oil and emery) is used
cut a design onto a glass surface. The technique, which has been used since Roman times, is best suited
thick-walled pieces, because the depth of the cut is an essential part of the design. The modern technique was probably developed between c.1590 and 1605, at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph 11 in Prague, by the gem engraver Caspar Lehman 15-0-1622), who engraved plaques and beakers with portraits and allegorical subjects.
In Bohemia a new type of glass known as “lime” glass, in which chalk lime carbonate was added to the batch to give a strong, colourless crystal suitable for deep engraving, was developed c.1683. At about the same time water power was introduced to drive the wheels, and this also enabled deeper cutting. Especially notable is the work of Dominik Biemann (1800 1857), whose training at the Prague Academy of Drawing is reflected in his fine engraved portraits on beakers and medallions. Of particular note are the Baroque pokals lidded goblets) decorated with Hochschnitt (”high cut”) engraving by the Silesian Friedrich Winter (d.C. 17 12). One of Lehman’s pupils was Georg Schwanhardt the Elder 1601-70), who left Prague for Nuremberg where he established a workshop and founded a dynasty of skilled engravers, including his son Heinrich (1624l
The technique was further developed in the 19th century, as Bohemian craftsmen pioneered a process whereby glass was overlaid with a layer of glass in a different colour and then wheel engraved to show the design in the colour of the first laver. Two lavers of glass were standard, but sophisticated pieces were composed of up to four layers. Such pieces demanded great expertise, as each coloured layer cooled at a different rate, and with each additional colour the risk of cracking increased. Common decoration included forest and hunting scenes, rural views, and castles. However, most sought after are special commissions such as portraits of famous people, battle scenes, and important buildings. Highly skilled Bohemian craftsmen travelled across Europe, so many pieces of this type were produced in various countries.
Towards the end of the 19th century some fine wheel-engraved pieces with Hochschnitt and Tiefschnitt (incised or intaglio) decoration were designed by J. & L. Lobmeyr (est. 1823) in Vienna. The firm produced copies of 18th-century designs and worked in Classical and contemporary styles. Leading engravers who worked for Lobmeyr included Karl Pietsch ( 1826-83), Peter Eisert ( 1828-94), and Franz Ullmann (1846-1921 ).
Engraved glass was also produced in Sweden. In the 20th century some outstanding pieces were made at the Orrefors factory (est. 1898) in Orrefors, in the Sul Aland region. In 1916 Simon Gate ( 1883-1945) was brought in as a chief designer, and he was joined the following year by Edvard Hald (1883-1980). Gate’s designs typically feature elegant Neo-classical figures,
while Hald’s figures are more caricatured and are mostly shallow engraved. Between 1928 and 1941 Vicke Lindstrand ( 1904-83) also worked for Orrefors, producing stylish and elegant designs.
Diamond-point and stipple engraving
• CONDITION diamond-point engraving should be shallow, with ragged, slightly broken lines, minor damage will not greatly affect value of early pieces
• BEWARE copies were decorated by
enthusiastic
amateurs in the I 9th century; when dated there is no Confusion, but undated older glasses can be misleading
Marks
Diamond-point pieces may he signed on the foot or in the design
Wheel engraving
• TYPES OF GLASS 19th-century Bohemian coloured glass Was a popular base; this glass should feel heavy
• DECORATION late 18th-century pieces feature formal designs; heavy, ornate engraving is typical; high-quality pieces have elaborately cut, ornate feet

Settles and sofas after 1840
The revival of interest in historical styles from the mid-19th century resulted in a multiplicity of designs for all types of furniture, including sofas, which were often made as part of the new salon or parlour suites. A major technical development during this period was use of the coil spring, patented in 1828, which resulted in sturdier, bulkier, and squatter designs that sacrificed form to comfort. These deeply upholstered seats, with their button backs, culminated in the Chesterfield, which was the first fully upholstered sofa.

Seat furniture
The period c. 1860 to (.1880 was in many ways the golden age of upholstery. Stuffing had been growing steadily thicker from the 1840s, and buttons were introduced to prevent the thread holding the stuffing
in place from pulling the covering material. Extra fabric was necessary to create the familiar diamond pattern of buttons or threads characteristic of the deep, luxurious upholstery, with its air of prosperity and comfort, so admired by the Victorian middle classes. The development of the coil spring made increased demands on buttoning. Whereas sofas had previously been stuffed with layers of wadding and horsehair, coiled metal springs were now used. The springs were supported by a layer of hessian webbing, covered with more webbing, which in turn was covered with horsehair stuffing and padding. As a result, Victorian sofas were much more comfortable than early 19th-century examples, but they were also much bulkier; many sofas had button backs to emphasize the new upholstered look. The luxurious effect was emphasized by the use of velvet and other elaborate fabrics. Sofas with their original worn upholstery arc more collectable today than those with high-quality restoration using an inappropriate fabric.
French sofas were generally lighter in design than British examples, since French craftsmen and manufacturers employed such revival styles as Rococo and Louis XVI, making use of giltwood and lighter upholstery fabrics. In the USA, parlour suites on a grand scale were produced by such leading makers as John Henry Belter (1804-63) of New York, who in the 1850s created laminated and moulded rosewood sofas with deep pierced carving. Renaissance Revival suites, with square-backed sofas, were also popular, while the fashion in Europe and the USA for “Turkish” corners gave rise to over-stuffed upholstered sofas with elaborate fringing.
Edwardian sofas of the first two decades of the 20th century borrowed heavily from Neo-classical styles –especially the designs of Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) – and from Regency styles, but managed to avoid the excesses of Victorian interpretations. Suites of chairs with matching sofas were produced; these were generally made from mahogany, or occasionally from walnut or satinwood. Sofas and chairs often had caned backs and sides, with silk or damask upholstery.

•    CHALSES-LONGUES these are not particularly commercial as they can be large and not very comfortable to sit on; examples with good shapes are more popular, as are those that are more heavily carved
•    GILDING good-quality regilding is quite acceptable if well executed– the highlights should be burnished, and the quality of the carving evident; beware of spray gilding – this will have a flat, matt appearance, with a very even coverage
•    RE-UPHOLSTERY the condition of the upholstery should be carefully examined, as seating can be very expensive to re-upholster; furniture with taut webbing is
preferable to that with springing, which tends to give an overstuffed look
•    COLLECTING many sofas and settees were originally part of parlour or salon suites, which are now rarely found complete; three-seater examples are generally more commercial than two-seater

Coalport
Today the quiet banks of the River Severn at Coalport, Shropshire, seem an unlikely location for two important porcelain factories: Coalport and Caughley. However, Coalport is close to Ironbridge in an area that once lay at the heart of the 18th-century Industrial Revolution. At the end of the century, the iron furnaces of Coalport were replaced by china works that produced a large amount of good everyday porcelain, especially tea-sets and dinner services. The Coalport factory succeeded by keeping abreast of popular tastes and fashions, and still exists today (although relocated to Stoke-on-Trent).
WHITE COALPORT
John Rose began porcelain production in Coalport c.1796. In 1799 he bought the nearby factory of - Caughley, where he continued to make blue-printed teawares. Early Coalport mostly followed New Hall in manufacturing inexpensive enamelled copies of Chinese patterns, and such teawares sold well at a time when popular Chinese tea-sets were no longer being imported in any quantity. Instead of trying to compete with the rich porcelain of Worcester or Derby, Rose realized that there were many skilled British china-painters working independently, all of whom required a regular supply of
plain white porcelain to decorate. Studios such as those managed by Thomas Baxter in London and George Sparks in Worcester bought white Coalport porcelain and added their own wonderful painting and rich gilding. This accounts for the great variety of decoration found on Coalport porcelain, which causes confusion for collectors. The situation is further complicated by the very similar shapes and designs made by another china factory, located next door to Rose’s and owned partly by his brother Thomas Rose. This operated from c.1800 and was bought by Rose in 1814. Rose is also believed to have acquired some moulds and designs following the closure
following
of the Nantgarw and Swansea factories in South Wales.
CONTINENTAL INFLUENCES
Coalport’s popular Neo-classical and “Japan” patterns gave way c.1815 to the latest French fashion for pretty floral wares using the white porcelain as a ground for delicate gilding. Colourful grounds were introduced
during the 1820s, followed in the 1830s by the creation of frivolous Rococo Revival-style wares inspired by the production of the German Meissen factory near Dresden, and therefore known as “English Dresden”. This style was epitomized by Coalport’s ornamental wares including vases, jardinieres, baskets, inkstands, and pastille burners, typically encrusted with brightly coloured modelled flowers. The term “Coalbrookdale”, applied to this type of porcelain (also known as “English Dresden”), originally referred only to Coalport wares, but today is used more loosely to describe encrusted china made by English manufacturers such as Minton Co. and Samuel Alcock & Co., who based their wares on the same Meissen originals. By the mid-19th Century Coalport many many fine in-house decorators and no longer relied on sending work out to independent artists. The exremely fine work of the bird-painter John Randall (1810-1910), and of William Cook (active 1843-76) who specialized in painting flowers, is unmistakable, and their designs are especially fine when combined with a characteristic turquoise ground.
KEY FACTSBODY
• hybrid hard-paste porcelain until c.1820, when bone china was introduced
• FORMS teawares, dinner services, flower-encrusted ornamental waresDECORATION
Chinese-style enamel patterns; French-style floral designs (c. 18 15); Rococo Revival wares inspired by Meissen encrusted with floral decoration, known as “Coalbrookdale” or “English Dresden” (,-.1830); fine painting and gilding; excellent work by independent decorators including Baxter and Sparks
• COLLECTING it is important to examine the shapes of wares as other factories copied Coalport designs

Porcelain
Plymouth, Bristol, and New Hall
English porcelain belonged to a type known technically as soft-paste, or “artificial”, porcelain, which lacked the beautiful hard whiteness of hard-paste porcelain such as that produced in China or at Meissen. However, the chemist William Cookworthy (1705-80) believed that hard paste could be made in Britain and searched for suitable raw materials. Kaolin (china clay), the essential ingredient in true porcelain, had been discovered in Cornwall in 1745, and Cookworthy patented several formulas containing this mineral to make what he believed to be the finest English porcelain.
PLYMOUTH AND BRISTOL
From c.1768 Cookworthy produced England’s first commercial hard-paste porcelain at his Plymouth works, but it was dogged by serious problems. A pure white glaze was rarely achieved – the creamy surface was frequently covered with black specks that gave it a dirty appearance. Like Meissen and other European makers, Plymouth experienced difficulties with its underglaze blue, which almost turned black, with severe blurring. Painters from Worcester were attracted to Plymouth, and the factory’s shapes and Oriental designs closely follow those of Worcester. Few collectors will admit that Plymouth was a failure, but when Cookworthy moved to Bristol in 1770 he had little of any real quality to show new investors.
The porcelain made by Cookworthyat Bristol was probably identical to his Plymouth wares, and it seems likely that much of the porcelain today called “Plymouth” was really made at Bristol. Improvements were made: John Toulouse, a modeller at Bow, came via Worcester and introduced new shapes and figures, mainly direct copies of the latest patterns of Meissen’s “Academic” period (1763-74). Bristol sometimes marked its wares with a copy of the Meissen crossed swords, a feature that often confuses present-day collectors – particularly since Bristol porcelain achieved a whiteness similar to that of Meissen after Richard Champion (1743-91) took over Cookworthy’s patents
in 1774. Champion made some beautiful porcelain, especially in the Neo-classical
style, but never in any great quantity because the works continued to be plagued by firing difficulties, notably “wreathing” – spiral ridges
on the surface caused by kiln distortion. Plates and dishes were placed on clay supports during firing to prevent warping. The factory closed in 1781.
NEW HALL
Despite the failure of Bristol, Champion still saw a future for English hard-paste porcelain and visited Staffordshire to try to sell his patent. A consortium of manufacturers showed an interest but realized
that Champion’s formula had to be adapted for mass production. As the New Hall Co., the consortium opened a factory c.1781 at Shelton to exploit an improved version of Champion’s porcelain body – the type now known as “hybrid hard paste”. The glaze tended to be greenish-grey, but it could be potted very thinly, and wreathing was a less severe problem. The factory was designed to make a profit and aimed its products at a mass market, ignoring more expensive pieces such as ornamental figures and vases. Tea and coffee services in a limited range of patterns comprised the bulk of New Hall’s output. Other factories, also concentrating on teawares, were established in competition, and each firm produced its own version of standard shapes – it is therefore important for collectors to learn the differences. New Hall continued into the 1830s, although its later products are not as collectable.
Plymouth (c.1768-70)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain
• GLAZE a pure white glaze was rarely achieved, because the creamy surface was frequently covered by a smoke of black specks that gave it a dirty appearance
• UNDERGLAZE BLUE almost black, with severe blurring
• DECORATION Oriental patterns following Worcester
Marks
This alchemical sign for tin (which was the main industry in Cornwall) was sometimes used
Bristol (1770-81)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain; very white after 1774
• FEATURES “wreathing” – ridges spiralling around the surface – can often be seen on cups and other hollow shapes owing to firing difficulties
• STYLE Neo-classical, continental
• DECORATION inspired by Meissen “Academic” wares
Marks
Mark in blue enamel, sometimes accompanied by numerals; Meissen crossed-swords mark also copied
New Hall (c.1781-1830s)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain, thinly potted
• GLAZE thick, dull, and greenish grey
• FORMS specialized in tea and coffee services aimed at the mass market; other items are extremely rare
Marks
Pattern numbers were introduced to enable customers to reorder easily, and these help with identification

Derby
Derby already had a long tradition of pottery manufacture by the time that porcelain was made there c.1748 by Andrew Planche, a French chemist
who had learned the art of making porcelain at factories in continental Europe. Early Derby production was very much aimed at the London market and imitated the white Rococo porcelain made at Chelsea.
EARLY DERBY WARES
The forms of the rare porcelain made during the Planche period are, like Chelsea’s, influenced by English silver. Chinoiserie figure groups, unique to Derby, are seen at their best when left undecorated. Derby’s
slightly creamy, glass-like glaze dribbled freely during the firing. To prevent adhesion to the kiln shelves, the glaze was initially wiped away from around the bases of figures and cream-jugs, giving
an appearance known as “dry-edge”. During Derby’s “transitional” phase (c.1755-6) the glaze, over a chalky paste, became whiter, and was lightly decorated in distinctive, rather delicate enamels, which have earned figure groups of this period the title “Pale Family”.
In 1756 William Duesbury (1725-86) and his partner John Heath bought the factory. From this time the influence of the German factory of Meissen became more apparent. Wares made under Duesbury’s direction are very similar to some made at Longton Hall and were likewise aimed at the London market. Tureens and leaf-shaped dishes were made, alongside some teawares and baskets. Derby developed distinctive styles of bird- and flower-painting that are conventionally associated with artists known respectively as the “moth painter” and “cotton-stalk painter”; in fact such decoration was applied by a number of painters at the factory.
Derby’s porcelain body meant that its teawares were prone to cracking during use, and examples are rare.
Instead, Derby became England’s foremost figure manufacturer. Influenced by Meissen, Derby figures of the 1750s and 1760s are very Rococo in style, standing on wide, scrolled bases, often backed with intricate bocage. To prevent kiln adhesion during firing, the unglazed bases of the figures were supported on raised clay pads that left distinctive “patch marks”.
THE CHELSEA-DERBY PERIOD
In 1770 Duesbury bought the ailing Chelsea factory and ran it until 1784 in conjunction with the Derby works. Following Chelsea’s adoption of the Derby porcelain formula, production at the factory improved, and new styles of decoration were developed, greatly influenced by the Neo-classical style fashionable in London. Figures continued to form the greater part of Derby’s output, but modellers engaged from Europe introduced new subjects and vastly improved the quality. They also developed biscuit figures into a distinctive Derby speciality. The fine detail of the modelling was displayed to full effect on white Derby biscuit figures and groups.
• BODY early Derby paste is chalky white
• GLAZE creamy white; c.1750-56 Derby porcelain is known as “dry-edge” because the edges of the bases were wiped free of glaze before firing
• FORMS tureens, leaf shapes, baskets; teawares are rare
• DECORATION birds, flowers; c.1756-65 sprays of flowers with very fine stems were painted, formerly attributed to the “cotton-stalk painter”
• FIGURES unglazed biscuit was used from 1770s; the styles are Rococo, including scrolled bases and bocage; “patch marks” were left by firing supports

Candlesticks are among today’s most popular and collectable silver items. The earliest-surviving domestic examples date from the mid-17th century, but most found today were made from the 18th century onward. A great variety of styles is available, from the Classical column shape of the late 18th century to the inventive figural and telescopic forms of the 19th century.
Early candlesticks were cast in solid silver, but huge numbers of less expensive examples stamped from rolled silver sheet were being produced in Birmingham and Sheffield by the 1770s – these were among the first-ever items mass-produced by industrial methods. It is important to remember when buying candlesticks and candelabra that most were made as pairs.
Candlesticks Before 1800
Until the age of mass production, silver candlesticks were used mostly by the Church and the wealthy; others tended to be made of less expensive pewter. Examples made before the mid-17th century are rare. Medieval candlesticks, made largely for church altars, featured tripod feet and a pricker (metal spike) to hold the candle: sockets or sconces for the candle were not introduced until the 15th century. Candlesticks were usually made as pairs and are generally sold as such today; single candlesticksmay sometimes be worth as little as a quarter of the value of a pair.
BAROQUE AND QUEEN ANNE STYLES Silver Candlesticks
Although many candlesticks are recorded from before the 17th century, few survive; they were often melted down because they were damaged, or for conversion into coin. In particular, there are very few English candlesticks dating front before the 1650s, as much silver was melted down during the Civil War (1642-9).
In the 17th century most silver candlesticks were raised from thin, hammered sheet metal. The earliest candlesticks found on the market today, dating from the 167()s and 1680s, have stems of fluted Classical columns, or clusters of columns, and octagonal or square bases. Some rare examples have scalloped, richly embossed bases – a speciality of Dutch silversmiths. American candlesticks made before c.1760 are rare; the earliest-known pair, made in Boston, dates from 1675.
In the 1690s immigrant Huguenot silversmiths revolutionized the production of English candlesticks by casting them in solid silver rather than raising them from sheet. The base, stem, and sconce were cast separately and soldered together. The earliest pattern of cast candlesticks, •generally 15 to 18chn (6-7in) high, had a plain baluster stem with a series of knops (bulbous rings) on a square, round, or angled base. During the 17105 and 1720s octagonal and hexagonal faceted stems and bases, typical of the Queen Anne style, became fashionable. These elegant candlesticks, made in the higher-standard (”Britannia”) silver, were plain except for an engraved coat of arms at the bottom of the stem.
ROCOCO AND NEO-CLASSICAL STYLES Silver Candlesticks
The baluster shape remained the most popular design in the early and mid-18th century, but IT, the early 1730s candlesticks were slightly taller (19-23Cro/7e’2_9jlj high), with richer ornament of pleated, lobed forms on the base and stern. The influence of the Rococo style is evident in the chased shell motifs and flared, flower-like nozzles
of examples from the 17305 to the 17605. Some exceptionally fine candlesticks of this period have ornately cast and chased steins of figures holding the candle sconce above their heads. In the 1740s detachable nozzles were added to the spool-shaped sconces for saving dripping wax and for easier removal of candle stabs; some candlesticks found today have replacement nozzles because the originals were damaged or lost. Throughout this period some silversmiths specialized in the production of candlesticks; in England, the best known were the Gould and the Cafe families.
In the 1750 and 1760s simpler forms returned under the influence of the Neo-classical style. Candlesticks of this period, averaging 24 to 28.5cm (9f —I Ist) high, have plain, circular nozzles, square bases, and plain or faceted stems decorated with typically Classical gadrooning around the base, knici and sconce. By c.1765 Corinthian column
candlesticks had become fashionable, and by he 1770S and 1780s the French style of plain or fluted tapering baluster stein on a circular base, decorated with Neo-classical ornament such as reeding, beading, swags, and ram’s heads, was popular. Noted architects such as Robert Adam, James Wyatt, and Sir William Chambers also produced designs for Neo-classical candlesticks as part of their overall schemes for interior decoration.
Simple Neo-classical forms with restrained decoration were particularly v suited to new methods of manufacture. Silversmiths in the growing industrial centres of Birmingham and Sheffield used rolled sheet silver, made in flatting mills, to manufacture candlesticks on a large scale. As this silver was often of very thin gauge, the base of the candlestick was weighted, or “loaded”, with wood, pitch, or plaster of parts for stability. Mass production of loaded candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield increased after the opening of assay offices in those two cities in 1773; the candlesticks proved SO popular that London silversmiths often bought in provincially made pieces and overstani them with London marks. Loaded candlesticks were significantly less expensive than cast ones because much less silver was used, and they still fetch lower prices today.
SILVER TAPERSTICKS, CHAMBERSTICKS AND SNUFFERS
From the late 17th century silversmiths made taperstick, — smaller versions of candlesticks (10-13crr/4—Sin) —for holding a taper, or thin candle, with which to melt sealing wax and light tobacco pipes. Since the designs of taperstick, copy almost exactly those of candlesticks, many such pieces were probably supplied as a set, although taperstick, were usually made singly rather than as a pair. Front the irricl century the taperstick was replaced by the waxjack, featuring a central rod, around which the taper was coiled, on a circular foot.
chambersticks were used to light the way at night. Because each member of a household would need one, they were made fit large sets, but pairs were common after c.1800. They usually have a saucer-like base, decorated with reeding, beading, or gadrooning, with a central socket on a short stem, and detachable nozzles from the mid-18th century. Rare, early 17th-centUry chambersticks have long, flat handles, but ring- or scroll-shaped handles were introduced front the 1720s, with a thumb-piece and socket fora conical extinguisher. Some chambersticks also have a pierced slot under the sconce for snuffer scissors, but matching snuffer scissors and chambersticks are rarely found today.
Snuffers (scissor-like implements for trimming and collecting wicks) were an essential accessory for candles before the self-consuming wick was invented c.1800. They were produced by specialist makers. The earliest sets, from the late 17th to early 18th century, have vertical stands with faceted baluster stems and bases similar to contemporary candlesticks, sometimes with a conical extinguisher attached. Later sets have oblong or hourglass-shaped stands, like trays, with feet or handlts. Snuffer trays are sometimes sold today as pen trays.
Silver Candlesticks after 1800
By the late 18th century huge numbers of loaded sheet-silver candlesticks were being made using mechanized production in the English industrial centres of Sheffield and Buirraigham, primarily to meet demand from the newly prosperous middle classes. The Ire, mechanized techniques of rolling sheet silver, die-stamping, and die-sinking gradually began to replace laborious casting methods (although the best-quality candlesticks were still cast). Candlesticks were also among the earliest items made in Sheffield plate. As the 19th century progressed, elaborate surface ornament, in keeping with Victorian taste, and revivals of 17th- and 18th-century styles characterized the production of candlesticks. They remained popular as decorative items even after the invention of gas and oil lighting and, later, electricity.
LATE NEO-CLASSICAL CANDLESTICKS
At the end of the 18th century candlesticks of all kinds —cast, loaded sheet silver, or Sheffield plate — were made either in the Corinthian column style on a square foot, or in the plain or fluted tapering baluster form on a circular foot: both types are decorated with ornament derived from Classical architecture, such as swags, ram’s heads, vreaths, urns, and formal leaves. Thee are generally 25.5 to 31cm ( 10-12m) tall. Sheet-silver and Sheffield-plate candlesticks have Visible seaming lines where the separate sheet or plate parts have been joined. They may also have small holes in the silver (or patches Of visible copper on plate pieces), especially on areas of high relief, caused by overstretching the sheet or plate. Any die-stamped ornament should be sharply defined.
The telescopic adjustable candlestick, a speciality of Sheffield makers, was popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Made in loaded sheet silver and Sheffield plate, it featured a cylindrical stem fitted with telescopic slides rising from the base. Although telescopic candlesticks occasionally appear in auctions today, most do not worl, properly; their restoration can be costly.
THE 19TH-CENTURY REVIVAL STYLES Silver Candlesticks
In the 19th century silver items were produced in an unprecedented range of historical styles, mainly as a result of developments in mechanized production, which meant that manufacturers could reproduce almost any form or type of ornament. The widespread dispersal of aristocratic collections of historic plate also provided inspiration for designers. Motifs such as trefoils and arches derived from Gothic art, while the Rococo — more ornate and bulbous than the original 18th-CCutUry version — remained one of the most popular revival styles throughout the Venture.
REGENCY AND VICTORIAN CANDLESTICKS
In the Regency period (late ISth—cariv :19th centres candlesticks became more ornate, with richer foliate and scroll decoration on the base, at the top of the stem, and around the socket. From about the 1820, and 1830, candlestick-makers concentrated on imitating 17th-and 18th-cenrur.% styles, beginning with the Rococo. Candlesticks in the Rococo Revival taste arc richly chased all over with scrolls and flowers and have undulating baluster stems, but the curves are heavier, the proportions less balanced, and the sconces more bulbous than on 18th-century originals; most were also made of loaded sheet silver, rather than cast as they would have been in the first half of the 18th century. Since mechanized manufacture resulted in less expensive products, large sets of matching candlesticks were more popular in this period than
Candlesticks in revival styles were produced in both larger and smaller versions of the originals; man, were also made as exact copies of originals to replace those that were damaged or lost, although there are although a number of fakes. Figural candlesticks were particularly popular during the 19th century, reflecting contemporary taste for novelty pieces. Subjects for figural candlesticks included caryatids, knights in armour, and rustic figures of shepherds and shepherdesses; pairs usually consist of male and female figures.
In the 1890s there was a revival of the fashion for column candlesticks, this time with stepped square bases and with inam, variations in the patterns of the borders and the capital. These are generally smaller than late 18th-centurN versions — about 14can 15′ 2111) high. Afam candlesticks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were wired for electrical lighting as dressing-table of desklights — in such cases there mac be holes in the base for the electrical cord. During the Vogue for the Queen Anne stele in the early 20th century, sonic silversmiths produced copies of early 18th-century styles; these can be distinguished from originals by their use of sterling silver instead of the Britannia standard and by their detachable no,zlcs, which did not appear before c.1740.
With the invention of the self-consuming candle wit: in the early 19th century, snuffers became obsolete, although some were made in revival stales.
THE NEW INDUSTRIAL CENTRES
Candlesticks were among the first items mass-produced in the English cities of Birmingham and Sheffield, using newly developed mechanized methods of manufacture. With the expansion of industry in those cities in the mid-19th century, candlestick manufacture became a specialized trade. The rolling, mill, invented c.1740, enabled a silver ingot to be flattened into a sheet of uniform gauge, while the fly press, developed in the 1760, and 1770x, made accurate and repetitive piercing possil-il, Both these inventions reduced labour and manufacturing costs, since they replaced laborious hammering and hand-piercing. Decorative components were also mass-produced by die-stamping. The sheet of metal was placed oil a block with a sunken die in the form of the pattern to lie reproduced; this was struck with a hammer with a relief pattern in the sart, shape as the dic. This method was used for items in both silver and Sheffield plate, and a vast range of styles and forms was made possible by interchanging the decorative stamped components. As complete sets of dies were highly expensive, then were often used by several manufacturers, resulting in the production of identical patterns by a Nall of silversmiths. These new industrialized methods were especially well exploited by the Birmingham makers Matthew Boutton ( 1728-1809) and John Fothergill (ti. 1782), who pioneered the use of the steam-powered rolling mill in the late 18th century.

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