Posts Tagged ‘Neo-classicism’

Berlin
The Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin (est. 1752) is best known for its superb porcelain made during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Neo-classicism was at its height. At this time Prussia was one of the most powerful states in Europe, and it became even stronger after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Its prosperity -was reflected in the great building schemes undertaken in Berlin and Potsdam, and some of the finest Neo-classical architecture of the age was designed by German architects such as Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841). Schinkel and the leading sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow ( 1764-18-50) were among prominent Contemporary artists commissioned to design porcelain in the rich Empire style associated with Napoleon, and in the Biedermeier style, a simpler, heavier, Classical sty le popular with the German middle classes. In contrast to many other European factories, which concentrated on reviving 18th-century styles, the Berlin factory continued to manufacture innovative and stylish wares and figures throughout the century.
BEFORE 1840
In the early 19th century Berlin’s particular speciality was wares with finely tooled gilt borders and gilt-ground sections framing sumptuous paintings, creating an opulent effect. In contrast to the vignettes popular in the 18th century, these paintings were highly finished so as to imitate works in oil, and none of the white porcelain was left showing. The most popular painted subjects included profile portraits (sometimes silhouettes) within oval medallions, and Classical themes, but the factory is most renowned for its fine topographical views depicting such celebrated buildings in Berlin as the Royal Palace and the Opera, or the scenery around Potsdam. Topographical views generally feature on cups and saucers, plates, and vases (where they are sometimes titled) intended for display.
Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, was an enthusiastic patron of the factory, commissioning and even designing table services for his palaces in Berlin and Potsdam. This tradition continued under Frederick William III; after the defeat of Napoleon, the King ordered elaborate Neo-classical services for both Prussian and foreign generals in celebration of their victory. The most famous of these is the “Prussian” service made between 1817 and 1819 for the Duke of Wellington, which is now displayed at Apsley House in London, his former residence.
One of the most significant developments in Europe during the first half of the 19th century was the increasing power and patronage of the middle classes,
a result of the economic boom brought by the Industrial Revolution. Instead of the elaborate table services made for royalty and aristocracy, there was much greater demand for single decorative pieces or small services. The factory adapted to the new market by producing large numbers of “cabinet” cups for display, generally cylindrical and often with covers, and similar to those made in Vienna. From c.1815 an elongated, slightly flared version, painted with portrait panels or Classical motifs, was introduced. Also typical of Berlin were octagonal tea services with fine paintings of ancient ruins, birds, or butterflies, surrounded with gilding and elaborate enamels imitating Roman mosaics and pietre dare (hardstone) panels.
Vases in a variety of sizes were popular for display and were a major part of the output of Berlin from c.1830. Based on antique forms such as urns and kraters, they were usually embellished with topographical paintings or elaborate Classical motifs in panels, surrounded by tooled gilt borders with Neo-classical motifs. The supreme technical and artistic quality of these vases was unmatched.
Like tablewares, figures were inspired by Classical models; they were usually left unpainted or unglazed, in imitation of antique statues, and set on simple cylindrical pedestals moulded with regular geometric borders. Although most of the subjects were allegorical or taken from Classical antiquity, the factory also made portraits of the Prussian royal family, and of Prussian generals who had defeated Napoleon. From the 1830s a figure of
the Princesses Louise and Frederike was mass-produced with a stepped base or plinth rather than a simple slab.
Portrait medallions in biscuit porcelain, mostly depicting the royal family, were also made on a large scale.
Porcelain Easter eggs were a distinctive product of the
Berlin factory from c.1820 to the end of the century. They were decorated all over with paintings reserved on coloured grounds.
LATER CLASSICAL AND OTHER STYLES
The Berlin factor y continued to make high-quality decorated porcelain until the end of the 19th century, even though there was a general decline in European porcelain manufacture because of competition from mass-produced goods. Most mid- and late 19th-century Berlin porcelain displays mainly Classical influences, while other factories such as Meissen concentrated on the revival of 18th-century Rococo models. However, such forms as vases became larger and heavier, and decoration often more ornate: the simple, angular shape for handles, for example, was replaced by animal heads.
Berlin’s tradition of treating porcelain primarily as a medium for painting reached its apogee c.1840 with the development of porcelain plaques. Like paintings, these were usually rectangular and enclosed in richly modelled gilt frames. They were sold as blanks to outside workshops and painted by independent decorators (Hausmaler). The very finely executed subjects were initially copies or details of Old Master works; however, during the last third of the 19th century the themes were less profound: exotic maidens in traditional costume, scantily clad nymphs among flowers, or rather sentimental religious subjects.
From c.18,50 Rococo Revival elements, such as curling scrollwork, flowers, and shells, appeared in the decoration of tablewares and vases. This decoration, combined with the gilded and coloured grounds and topographical views, resulted in an overdecorated effect. This would never have occurred in the 18th century, when restrained decoration was used to create balance. The factory also experimented in mid-century with the Renaissance Revival style by manufacturing copies of Italian Renaissance maiolica and 17th-century German stoneware. These pieces have much heavier forms than the originals. The production of figures at this time was confined mainly to busts and figures of the royal family, ladies in contemporary dress on pedestals, and a limited revival of 18th-century models of such subjects as pastoral figures and tradesmen.
During the 1870s the factory suffered severe financial setbacks, but Hermann Seger, appointed technical director in 18787
, revived its fortunes and ensured its future by developing a series of new glazes. The subtle glaze effects on Oriental porcelain were particularly fashionable in the late 19th century, especially after Japanese and Chinese ceramics were displayed at the numerous European international exhibitions. Seger was the first manufacturer in Europe to reproduce rich flambe and sang-de-boeuf glazes by developing the “Seger cones”, which allowed accurate control of firing temperatures. This type of Oriental-inspired porcelain was known as “Seger-Porzellan”, and the new technology was taken up in porcelain factories throughout Europe. The Berlin factory continues to produce fine porcelain today.
• BODY high-quality, white, hard-paste porcelain with a glassy glaze and a slightly cold, bluish tinge
Before c.1840
• STYLE restrained Neo-classical
• FORMS cabinet cups and saucers; Easter eggs
• DECORATION gilt borders finely tooled with Classical motifs; highly finished topographical paintings imitating oils; coloured and gilt grounds
After c.1840
• STYLE eclectic, combining both Rococo and Classical elements
• FORMS painted plaques with elaborate gilt frames
• DECORATION very ornate, with applied gilt motifs such as shells and curling scrollwork combined with coloured grounds and paintings; paintings of sentimental religious subjects or exotic maidens on plaques
Marks

Candlesticks are among today’s most popular and collectable silver items. The earliest-surviving domestic examples date from the mid-17th century, but most found today were made from the 18th century onward. A great variety of styles is available, from the Classical column shape of the late 18th century to the inventive figural and telescopic forms of the 19th century.
Early candlesticks were cast in solid silver, but huge numbers of less expensive examples stamped from rolled silver sheet were being produced in Birmingham and Sheffield by the 1770s – these were among the first-ever items mass-produced by industrial methods. It is important to remember when buying candlesticks and candelabra that most were made as pairs.
Candlesticks Before 1800
Until the age of mass production, silver candlesticks were used mostly by the Church and the wealthy; others tended to be made of less expensive pewter. Examples made before the mid-17th century are rare. Medieval candlesticks, made largely for church altars, featured tripod feet and a pricker (metal spike) to hold the candle: sockets or sconces for the candle were not introduced until the 15th century. Candlesticks were usually made as pairs and are generally sold as such today; single candlesticksmay sometimes be worth as little as a quarter of the value of a pair.
BAROQUE AND QUEEN ANNE STYLES Silver Candlesticks
Although many candlesticks are recorded from before the 17th century, few survive; they were often melted down because they were damaged, or for conversion into coin. In particular, there are very few English candlesticks dating front before the 1650s, as much silver was melted down during the Civil War (1642-9).
In the 17th century most silver candlesticks were raised from thin, hammered sheet metal. The earliest candlesticks found on the market today, dating from the 167()s and 1680s, have stems of fluted Classical columns, or clusters of columns, and octagonal or square bases. Some rare examples have scalloped, richly embossed bases – a speciality of Dutch silversmiths. American candlesticks made before c.1760 are rare; the earliest-known pair, made in Boston, dates from 1675.
In the 1690s immigrant Huguenot silversmiths revolutionized the production of English candlesticks by casting them in solid silver rather than raising them from sheet. The base, stem, and sconce were cast separately and soldered together. The earliest pattern of cast candlesticks, •generally 15 to 18chn (6-7in) high, had a plain baluster stem with a series of knops (bulbous rings) on a square, round, or angled base. During the 17105 and 1720s octagonal and hexagonal faceted stems and bases, typical of the Queen Anne style, became fashionable. These elegant candlesticks, made in the higher-standard (”Britannia”) silver, were plain except for an engraved coat of arms at the bottom of the stem.
ROCOCO AND NEO-CLASSICAL STYLES Silver Candlesticks
The baluster shape remained the most popular design in the early and mid-18th century, but IT, the early 1730s candlesticks were slightly taller (19-23Cro/7e’2_9jlj high), with richer ornament of pleated, lobed forms on the base and stern. The influence of the Rococo style is evident in the chased shell motifs and flared, flower-like nozzles
of examples from the 17305 to the 17605. Some exceptionally fine candlesticks of this period have ornately cast and chased steins of figures holding the candle sconce above their heads. In the 1740s detachable nozzles were added to the spool-shaped sconces for saving dripping wax and for easier removal of candle stabs; some candlesticks found today have replacement nozzles because the originals were damaged or lost. Throughout this period some silversmiths specialized in the production of candlesticks; in England, the best known were the Gould and the Cafe families.
In the 1750 and 1760s simpler forms returned under the influence of the Neo-classical style. Candlesticks of this period, averaging 24 to 28.5cm (9f —I Ist) high, have plain, circular nozzles, square bases, and plain or faceted stems decorated with typically Classical gadrooning around the base, knici and sconce. By c.1765 Corinthian column
candlesticks had become fashionable, and by he 1770S and 1780s the French style of plain or fluted tapering baluster stein on a circular base, decorated with Neo-classical ornament such as reeding, beading, swags, and ram’s heads, was popular. Noted architects such as Robert Adam, James Wyatt, and Sir William Chambers also produced designs for Neo-classical candlesticks as part of their overall schemes for interior decoration.
Simple Neo-classical forms with restrained decoration were particularly v suited to new methods of manufacture. Silversmiths in the growing industrial centres of Birmingham and Sheffield used rolled sheet silver, made in flatting mills, to manufacture candlesticks on a large scale. As this silver was often of very thin gauge, the base of the candlestick was weighted, or “loaded”, with wood, pitch, or plaster of parts for stability. Mass production of loaded candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield increased after the opening of assay offices in those two cities in 1773; the candlesticks proved SO popular that London silversmiths often bought in provincially made pieces and overstani them with London marks. Loaded candlesticks were significantly less expensive than cast ones because much less silver was used, and they still fetch lower prices today.
SILVER TAPERSTICKS, CHAMBERSTICKS AND SNUFFERS
From the late 17th century silversmiths made taperstick, — smaller versions of candlesticks (10-13crr/4—Sin) —for holding a taper, or thin candle, with which to melt sealing wax and light tobacco pipes. Since the designs of taperstick, copy almost exactly those of candlesticks, many such pieces were probably supplied as a set, although taperstick, were usually made singly rather than as a pair. Front the irricl century the taperstick was replaced by the waxjack, featuring a central rod, around which the taper was coiled, on a circular foot.
chambersticks were used to light the way at night. Because each member of a household would need one, they were made fit large sets, but pairs were common after c.1800. They usually have a saucer-like base, decorated with reeding, beading, or gadrooning, with a central socket on a short stem, and detachable nozzles from the mid-18th century. Rare, early 17th-centUry chambersticks have long, flat handles, but ring- or scroll-shaped handles were introduced front the 1720s, with a thumb-piece and socket fora conical extinguisher. Some chambersticks also have a pierced slot under the sconce for snuffer scissors, but matching snuffer scissors and chambersticks are rarely found today.
Snuffers (scissor-like implements for trimming and collecting wicks) were an essential accessory for candles before the self-consuming wick was invented c.1800. They were produced by specialist makers. The earliest sets, from the late 17th to early 18th century, have vertical stands with faceted baluster stems and bases similar to contemporary candlesticks, sometimes with a conical extinguisher attached. Later sets have oblong or hourglass-shaped stands, like trays, with feet or handlts. Snuffer trays are sometimes sold today as pen trays.
Silver Candlesticks after 1800
By the late 18th century huge numbers of loaded sheet-silver candlesticks were being made using mechanized production in the English industrial centres of Sheffield and Buirraigham, primarily to meet demand from the newly prosperous middle classes. The Ire, mechanized techniques of rolling sheet silver, die-stamping, and die-sinking gradually began to replace laborious casting methods (although the best-quality candlesticks were still cast). Candlesticks were also among the earliest items made in Sheffield plate. As the 19th century progressed, elaborate surface ornament, in keeping with Victorian taste, and revivals of 17th- and 18th-century styles characterized the production of candlesticks. They remained popular as decorative items even after the invention of gas and oil lighting and, later, electricity.
LATE NEO-CLASSICAL CANDLESTICKS
At the end of the 18th century candlesticks of all kinds —cast, loaded sheet silver, or Sheffield plate — were made either in the Corinthian column style on a square foot, or in the plain or fluted tapering baluster form on a circular foot: both types are decorated with ornament derived from Classical architecture, such as swags, ram’s heads, vreaths, urns, and formal leaves. Thee are generally 25.5 to 31cm ( 10-12m) tall. Sheet-silver and Sheffield-plate candlesticks have Visible seaming lines where the separate sheet or plate parts have been joined. They may also have small holes in the silver (or patches Of visible copper on plate pieces), especially on areas of high relief, caused by overstretching the sheet or plate. Any die-stamped ornament should be sharply defined.
The telescopic adjustable candlestick, a speciality of Sheffield makers, was popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Made in loaded sheet silver and Sheffield plate, it featured a cylindrical stem fitted with telescopic slides rising from the base. Although telescopic candlesticks occasionally appear in auctions today, most do not worl, properly; their restoration can be costly.
THE 19TH-CENTURY REVIVAL STYLES Silver Candlesticks
In the 19th century silver items were produced in an unprecedented range of historical styles, mainly as a result of developments in mechanized production, which meant that manufacturers could reproduce almost any form or type of ornament. The widespread dispersal of aristocratic collections of historic plate also provided inspiration for designers. Motifs such as trefoils and arches derived from Gothic art, while the Rococo — more ornate and bulbous than the original 18th-CCutUry version — remained one of the most popular revival styles throughout the Venture.
REGENCY AND VICTORIAN CANDLESTICKS
In the Regency period (late ISth—cariv :19th centres candlesticks became more ornate, with richer foliate and scroll decoration on the base, at the top of the stem, and around the socket. From about the 1820, and 1830, candlestick-makers concentrated on imitating 17th-and 18th-cenrur.% styles, beginning with the Rococo. Candlesticks in the Rococo Revival taste arc richly chased all over with scrolls and flowers and have undulating baluster stems, but the curves are heavier, the proportions less balanced, and the sconces more bulbous than on 18th-century originals; most were also made of loaded sheet silver, rather than cast as they would have been in the first half of the 18th century. Since mechanized manufacture resulted in less expensive products, large sets of matching candlesticks were more popular in this period than
Candlesticks in revival styles were produced in both larger and smaller versions of the originals; man, were also made as exact copies of originals to replace those that were damaged or lost, although there are although a number of fakes. Figural candlesticks were particularly popular during the 19th century, reflecting contemporary taste for novelty pieces. Subjects for figural candlesticks included caryatids, knights in armour, and rustic figures of shepherds and shepherdesses; pairs usually consist of male and female figures.
In the 1890s there was a revival of the fashion for column candlesticks, this time with stepped square bases and with inam, variations in the patterns of the borders and the capital. These are generally smaller than late 18th-centurN versions — about 14can 15′ 2111) high. Afam candlesticks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were wired for electrical lighting as dressing-table of desklights — in such cases there mac be holes in the base for the electrical cord. During the Vogue for the Queen Anne stele in the early 20th century, sonic silversmiths produced copies of early 18th-century styles; these can be distinguished from originals by their use of sterling silver instead of the Britannia standard and by their detachable no,zlcs, which did not appear before c.1740.
With the invention of the self-consuming candle wit: in the early 19th century, snuffers became obsolete, although some were made in revival stales.
THE NEW INDUSTRIAL CENTRES
Candlesticks were among the first items mass-produced in the English cities of Birmingham and Sheffield, using newly developed mechanized methods of manufacture. With the expansion of industry in those cities in the mid-19th century, candlestick manufacture became a specialized trade. The rolling, mill, invented c.1740, enabled a silver ingot to be flattened into a sheet of uniform gauge, while the fly press, developed in the 1760, and 1770x, made accurate and repetitive piercing possil-il, Both these inventions reduced labour and manufacturing costs, since they replaced laborious hammering and hand-piercing. Decorative components were also mass-produced by die-stamping. The sheet of metal was placed oil a block with a sunken die in the form of the pattern to lie reproduced; this was struck with a hammer with a relief pattern in the sart, shape as the dic. This method was used for items in both silver and Sheffield plate, and a vast range of styles and forms was made possible by interchanging the decorative stamped components. As complete sets of dies were highly expensive, then were often used by several manufacturers, resulting in the production of identical patterns by a Nall of silversmiths. These new industrialized methods were especially well exploited by the Birmingham makers Matthew Boutton ( 1728-1809) and John Fothergill (ti. 1782), who pioneered the use of the steam-powered rolling mill in the late 18th century.

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Dining-tables before 1840.
The gateleg table enjoyed enduring popularity in Britain and The Netherlands well into the 18th century, and indeed the provincial tradition carried on virtually unbroken to today. Although gateleg tables were usually oval or circular, rectangular gatelegs, conceived en suite with U-shaped gateleg end-sections, emerged during the reign of George II ( 1727-60). The earliest recorded extending dining-table was that supplied to Sir Robert Walpole for Houghton Hall, Norfolk, c.1730. Conceived with two single gateleg denn-lure end-sections and two double-gatelcg central sections, which could be easily stored away when not in use, it has a moulded top and is supported on 32 ring-turned columnar legs with bun feet. However, this design had its failings, as the vast number of legs made it awkward for large numbers of sitters to be seated, and it was only with the introduction of leaves that more guests could be accommodated comfortabl,.
18TH-CENTURY DINING-TABLES
During the reign of George II, dining-tables with pedestal supports were introduced. Invariably of mahogany, with D-shaped ends and up to as many as five further rectangular tilt-top central sections, the earliest examples made during the 1750s have a separate pedestal to support each section. These pedestals, closely mirroring contemporary tripod tables in design, were initially simple, with a ring-turned columnar or gun-barrel shaft supported on cabriole legs, and pad feet, often with leather casters. During the 1760s the shafts of the pedestals became increasingly rich in both form and carving, perhaps with a vase-shaped baluster and spiral-fluting, or foliate trails to the knees. The tops, joined together by brass U-shaped hooks, were usually covered with linen tablecloths, and were therefore invariably rather plain, as crossbanding was only introduced in the last quarter of the 18th century. Most examples of this period were made of mahogany, with the best timber available being employed to impress. With the advances of Neo-classicism, the pedestals again became increasing]) restrained in form and decoration, the vase-shaped shafts of the 1780s and 1790s giving way to ring-turned columns with dokvnswcpr reeded legs.
Although, rather surprisingly, designs for dating- tables did not feature in I ;ih-century pattern-books, Thomas Chippendale ( 1718-79) certainly supplied several, Sir Edward Knatchbull being charged f5 for “2 Mahogany round ends to Join his Dining-Tables, with 2 pair of strap Hinges, Hooks and Eyes” in 1769. While the tilt-top central sections of pedestal dining-tables could certainly be stored away when not in use, they were still somewhat cumbersome. A sophisticated refinement, therefore, was the Cumberland-action table, which first appeared in the 17-()s. Named after Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, brother of George III, these dining-tables have double-gateleg scissor-action central sections and single-gatcleg end-sections, which can all support further leaves when opened. They arc more stable and easier to enlarge than pedestal dining-tables; their tops are often both moulded and thinner, the most accomplished examples being veneered with exceptional richly figured timber, particularly fiddleback (flame) or plum-pudding mahogany, often crossbanded with tulipwood, padouk, or ebony. Provincial versions of this table were also made, usually constructed of solid mahogany. However, rather than having rent cable leaves to reduce or enlarge the size, these had instead double-gatcleg-action central sections with attached leaves, which hung down when not in use.
During the late 18th century, dining-tables in the Neo-classical taste were made throughout northern Europe and North America. Usually with two semicircular end-sections, often above a plain panelled frieze, and further leaves, supported on square, tapering or turned and fluted legs, Russian and Louis XVI examples are often enriched with brass collars and flutes. While French and German examples are usually made of mahogany, Swedish, Danish, and Russian dining-tables are often of Karelian birch and cherry.
19TH-CENTURY DINING TABLES
This basic form of dining-table described above could not support more than one leaf between pedestals securely and thus Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) revealed in The Cabinet Dictionary (1803), pedestal dining-tables enjoyed enduring popularity: “The common useful dining-tables arc upon pillar and claws, generally four claws to each pillar, with brass castors. dining-table of this kind may be made to any size, by having a sufficient quantity of pillars and claw, parts, for between each of them is a loose flap, fixed by means of iron straps and buttons so that they arc easily taken off and put aside”. Such massive “pillar” or pedestal dining-tables, often lavishly decorated with classically inspired motifs, such as claw monopodium and Roman acanthus scrolls, as popularized by George Smith (active c.1786-1828), continued to be made throughout the 19th century. In North America, mahogany pedestal dining-tables with columns on platform supports with sabre legs were made in the Federal style, and after 1815 in the Regency style, by such cabinet-makers as Duncan llhxfe ( 1 76 8-1 8 54) in New York. After 1820 this type Was largely replaced by Empire pedestal dining-tables, with heavier carved pillar supports resting on platform hales, often with four curved legs and animal-paw feet.
Although telescopic dining-tables (discussed right) were popular during the 19th century, both in Britain and abroad, their form when extended could only ever be rectangular. It was the inventor and cabinet-maker Robert Jupe of New Bond Street who revolutionized the design of oval and circular dining-tables in the reign of William IV (1830-37). In 1835 he was granted a patent – subsequently known as “Jupe’s patent” – for the design of a segmental extending dining-table. This mechanism, whereby the segments of the top could be pulled out on their brass-channelled runners and further segments could be placed between them, increased the circumference of the table by up to half as much again, and applied equally well to both circular and oval dining-tables. Jupe dining-tables were invariably made of mahogany and were usually supplied with two sets of leaves, together with a leaf-case, which enabled a typical circular table to be approximately 1.41n (4ft 7in) in circumference when closed, 1.81n (5ft I I in) when partially extended, and 2.1m 16ft I fill) when fully extended. Usually supported on baluster shafts and channelled downswept legs with lion’s-paw, feet, most Jupe tables are stamped “Johnstone Jupe & Co., New Bond Street” and numbered. Long admired, this pattern was inevitably imitated by Jupe’s contemporaries, but those that carry the Johnstone Jupe & Co. stamp command a considerable premium.
TELESCOPIC DINING-TABLES
Although the firm of Gillow (est. c.1730) of Lancaster is best known for its restrained and often utilitarian mahogany furniture of superb technical craftsmanship, ri ship, it also manufactured some novel forms. In 1805 Richard Gillow (1734-1811) patented a design for the “Imperial Extending Dining Table”, which was “calculated to reduce the number of legs, pillar and claws and to facilitate their enlargement and reduction”; the perennial problem of enlarging a dining-table without having to store numerous tilt-top pedestals was therefore fully addressed. This new device, “whereby the two ends of the table are connected by pieces of wood, so joined together to form what are commonly called lazy tongs”, meant that any number of leaves could be added to the “telescopic” frame when it was extended. Distinguished by their finely figured mahogany, seeded edges above a plain panelled frieze, and reveled baluster legs, Gillow’s dining-tables are among the most famous and sought after. They were made throughout the 19th century, and their date is usually betrayed by the increasing thickness of the top and the more bulbous, heavier, and often carved legs supported by ceramic rather than brass casters. From c.1780 the firm stamped much its furniture with one of several marks including “GILLOWSLANCASTER” and individual craftsmen often signed their work in pencil.

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