Posts Tagged ‘paste porcelain’

THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD
HEPPLEWHITE began his career as a cabinet maker
at a time when the art of cabinet making was at its ifullest tide kakiemon porcelain . The second half of the eighteenth century is often called the golden age of cabinet making, and by I- `6o, when Hepplewhite settled in business at Cripple-gate, the standard of design and craftsmanship was at its zenit1h walnut tripod tea table . The Chippendale school was still in its prime, and they was a strong group of craftsmen who had ingrained in the — a fine trade tradition, a thing which implies something more than a mere ability to use tools antique card table collectors . It means a sense of appreciation and a certain element of originality, tempered with the convention that belongs to a workshop where everything is done by hand silver tripod table .
George Hepplewhite was one of these practical men english bristol teapots . He was scarcely a designer in the sense that Robert Adam was antique english stoneware identification . He did not sit down at his drawing board and sketch out purely original designs, but his work had characteristic features that can usually be recognised andre’ japaneese porcelain . As a cabinet maker he knew his job perfectly, and, in addition, he had a keen appreciation of fine line which enabled him to give his work a certain individuality in a way that would be beyond a man of no imagination eighteenth century women dressing in front of men in their bedchamber . In this sense he no doubt influenced the trade considerably, but beyond this he simply worked in a certain style which a group of cabinet makers was following angouleme guerhard . His name has come to be attached to that style probably because of his book, The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide, and that was not published until 1788, two years after his death antique wooden pot cupboard .
It is apparent, then, in speaking of Hepplewhite furniture a general style popular from about 1760 until practically the end of the century is implied rather than the work of Hepplewhite himself as an individual dutch antique furniture . A great deal of furniture no doubt was made in the workshop at Cripplegate, but except in a few rare instances it is impossible definitely to identify it antique drop-leaf bread table .
Taken generally, Ilepplewhite furniture was comparatively simple antique blue glass kidney shaped end table . There were a few touches of decoration (usually applied), but even the most ornate specimens had nothing like the elaboration found in the richer Chippendale pieces english porcelain parian . Several new forms of decoration were introduced or revived, for whereas Chippendale work had little other form of decoration besides carving, Hepplewhite furniture had
FIG (chineseexportporcelaincoffeeservice) . 130 tambour commode . SHIELD BACK CHAIR french art deco porcelain jaguar .
1770-1780 spoonback armchair .
One of the finest chairs produced in the 18th century “antique collectors blog” .
For all their lightness these chairs were extremely strong art nouveau jugendstil jugs .
being made in the finest mahogany and of the best work-
manship multipurpose dressing table .
inlay, painting, and gilding in addition to carving glass table antique ceramic legs . The inlay usually took the form of bandings and strings in satinwood, rosewood, ebony, and so on, and was in fact very similar to the inlaid work usually associated with Sheraton glass boudoir lamp deco . Carving was of small classical subject, vases, festoons, draped cloth, and swags of husks, an entire departure from the elaborate scrolling acanthus leafwork of the Chippendale school duke extendable dining table .
It is perhaps in the chair that the Hepplewhite charac-
HOOP BACK
CHAIR antique empire or regency style mahogany bookcase .
1770-1780 english seventeenth century cabinets .
A favourite motif of Hepple-
whitewere the ears of wheat ball and claw tripod table antique . These appear at
the top of the pierced splat
in the back 18th century wardrobe .
11
FIG carved japanese tea table . 132 edgar brandt reproductions snake lamp . OVAL BACK
CHAIR pennsylvania house antique sideboard .
1770-1780-
The French influence is
strongly marked In this
chair world market carved brass charger plate . Except for this
French form the cabriole
leg was never used by
the late 18th century
designers antique silver sphinx .
SIDEBOARD WITH BREAK FRONT DECORATED WITH INLAY pembroke end table .
Late i8th century,
It was not until towards the end of the 18th century that the sideboard with drawer and cupboard accommodation
was made epergne antique for sale . It was evolved from the side table with separate pedestals recipe for “soft paste porcelain” . It is difficult to distinguish between
Hepplewhite and Sheraton pieces as both had a great deal in common italian deco furniture .
The Shield Back Chair
teristic is most marked de coene freres . Probably the most famous type is the shield back, of which an example is given in Fig small sutherland table . 130- A really fine example of a shield back ranks amongst the most beautiful things ever produced, but, like the cabriole leg, first-rate examples are rare antique folding “coaching table” . The truth is that it takes a first-class chair maker of considerable experience to make one properly, the difficulty being that the shaping runs in three directions 16th century english joyned table . There is the shield shape seen from the front, the backward rake, and the concave plan shape antique table turned legs . To incorporate all these to form one harmonious whole is something that calls for a great deal of skill and experience antique inlaid table birds .
As a rule the main back framing had a channelled moulding worked all round it, and the probable reason for this was that it helped to emphasise the shield shape steuben stemware deco . It will be realised that, although the lower part of the shield appears to be in one piece, it is in reality in three dresser with mirrors & teardrop pulls & ogee bracket . The side portions in fact continue down, forming the back legs, and a curved bottom rail is fitted in to complete the shape between them 18th century marquetry . By channelling the wood the shield appears to be in one unbroken piece william iv jupe extending circular . The front legs of these chairs were invariably tapered louis sue .
The chief outside influences of Hepplewhite were the Adam and the French raoul dufy, plates ceramique . Of the latter there was Louis XV, which showed itself in the cabriole leg exemplified in Fig classical work/sewing table mahogany,3 drawers,carved legs, pedestal paw feet . 132 olive green and iron red oriental porcelain . Note the French scrolled foot and the flat shaping which continues along the front seat rail in an unbroken sweep arabisque furniture in ny . Another French influence came from the Louis XVI, and one result was the use of the turned leg 18th and 19th century silversmithing . An example of this is the settee in Fig antique spoons italy silver ornate . 129 papier mache tray-c19th .
Other typical Hepplewhite chair backs are the hoop back, of which Fig antique drop leaf or gate leg tables, ,ny . 131 is an example, the oval back (Fig antique 5 leg oak drop leaf table . 132), heart shape, and that with the serpentine shaped top rail curving into the uprights mackintosh wooden chairs .
Pieces such as sideboards, writing tables, bureaux, chests of drawers, tallboys, wardrobes, and so on were, as already mentioned, extremely like Sheraton furniture, and are dealt with more fully in Chapter X curved back chair from 1940s . The bedstead in Fig french chamber pot bed tables . 129 is a four-poster, very like one appearing in Hepplewhite’s book, and shows the general restraint in treatment walnut tripod tea table .
Fig clawfoot dresser . 133 is a sideboard belonging to the last few years of the eighteenth century trestle table double column . It has characteristics of the Hepplewhite style, but there are others which belong equally to Sheraton, and, as we are dealing with what might be termed schools of design rather than the work of individuals, it is apparent that one can do little more than term it late eighteenth century antique french empire . It is probably the work of a cabinet maker whose name has not come down to posterity, and who worked in the traditional style of the period edwards & roberts furniture .
THE AGE OF THE DESIGNER
ADAM PERIOD
N one important sense Robert Adam was entirely
different from the other outstanding characters with
-whose work this book deals serpentine top breakfast table . He was an architect by profession, not a practical cabinet maker, and in turning his attention to furniture he was not in any way fettered by any convention which a tradesman might have 19century british armschairs . It is not suggested that the convention of a good trade tradition is bad ; it is one of the healthiest influences a craft can have ; but it simply is a statement of fact that Adam was able to approach the subject from a fresh angle italian inlaid tea table . He worked from his drawing board and passed on his designs to be carried out by a practical cabinet maker porcelain spanish dancers .
He had travelled a good deal in France and Italy, and on his return in 1758 he set himself up as an architect and rapidly became very successful antique furniture prohibition bar examples . As a result of his foreign studies he was influenced considerably by the classical school, but he had a strong individual turn, and as a result his work had a characteristic touch which made it different from that of other architects working in the classical style antique drop leaf table for sale . It was delicate and refined (some term it effeminate), abounding in small intricate detail, and it superseded largely the rather heavier work of such architects as Sir William Chambers “empire designer, best known for pedestal tables with curved legs .
His connection with furniture was that in designing an interior he included the furniture as an essential part of the scheme blue china tea set with silver inlay england . To the average architect the work was finished when the walls and ceiling had been decorated, but Adam required every detail, even to the ornaments on the sideboard, to harmonise with his ideas japanese portable cherry wood tea tables . Perhaps the most notable example is that of Harewood House, in which the furniture was designed by Adam and executed by Chippendale antique ball and claw desk .
Although there were marked characteristics in Adam furniture, one has to be wary in accepting a piece as genuine Adam Characteristics
Adam chinese furnture form mid 19th centuary . The fact that he had to employ practical cabinet makers, combined with his great success, soon led to a great deal of imitation simple european furniture . In fact, of all the ” Adam ” work that has survived only a very small part can be identified as owing its origin to Adam himself regency period casters .
FIG porcelaine antique motif ming . 137 louis the 14th chair . DINING TABLE WITH FLAP AND PIVOTED BACK LEG japanese laqure tea table .
Abotd 1775•
This is one of a pair of tables Intended to be placed together when used
for dining silver flatware wood handle . The front rail is in reality a drawer front brass ornaments for furniture empire style . It now stands In
the Victoria and Albert Museum South Kensington 1828 sideboard buffet .
self was an individual and original designer, ” Adam ” furniture was, for the most part, the work of a school working in his style antique wood drop leaf table .
Adam used many methods of decoration in his furniture antique oak dropleaf gateleg table . The carving had definite characteristics shearers cupboard heavy . The acanthus leafage was finer and more delicately treated than in the full scrolled form which Chippendale had favoured, and, in addition, he used chains of husks, the honeysuckle device, Greek key, vases, drapery, plaques carved with mythological subjects, rams’ heads, and grotesques antique empire furniture . Inlay and marquetry, too, were revived, and were carried out in satinwood, tulip-wood, rosewood, amboyna, harewood, and so on biedermeier antique de . The subjects were similar to those of the carving furniture designersgerman . Another form of decoration was painting in the style of Angelica Kauffman meissen porcelain antic . A popular treatment was to make these painted panels the main feature of a design of scrolling acanthus leafwork
FIG antique dishes germany pastels with scallops . 138 henry clay bed and furniture . SEMI-CIRCULAR ADAM SIDE TABLE ferniture leg in itali .
T770-1780 antique table in europe .
An extremely fine piece of cabinet work carried out In mahogany antique vase markings newcastle.. on. tyne 1762 . The
curved top rail is veneered, the grain running crosswise 17 century elm gateleg table . The centre
panel and the oval pater2e are typical features brass frame girandole images .
and husks 17th and 18th century french silver marks . In some few instances, too, Wedgwood plaques were introduced bidet square .
A typical Adam sideboard is shown in Fig lion antique mahogany dining table . 136 royal sheffield silver . Properly speaking, it is a side table with two pedestals, but the three pieces were intended to stand together and form a whole In some cases the pedestals were actually joined to the table, though the result never seems quite so successful furniture of meiji period . It gives one the impression that the three pieces were actually separate at one time and were fixed together antique silver candelabras made in england . It is true that there was a general tendency to make the sideboard a single unit, but it was only when the pedestals lost their indivi-The Adam Sideboard
duality as such that the result was really a success labels under boulle furniture . The Sheraton sideboard in Fig makers of antique tea tables . 14 wheat shaped dining table base .4 exemplifies the point furniture  finmar ltd . The origin of the pedestals can just be traced, but they are essentially a part of the design as a whole “art, nouveau”"chiparus”"deer” .
The pedestals owed their origin to the lack of accommodation in the side table andres rosewood solid wood . If one refers back to the side table of Chippendale’s time in Fig chromed trestle table leg . 11 5 it is obvious that its only use was to provide standing space on its top directoire phyfe sofa . There were no drawers or cupboards in which table furniture could be kept opalescent glass perfume france . It fell to Adam to introduce the pedestals antique walnut telescooic dining table . Sometimes they were fitted up with metal grids to enable hot irons to be placed in the cupboards, so providing ? means of warming plates The urns at the top either had metal containers in which iced water was kept, or they were fitted up to hold cutlery antique rosewood armoire with claw feet . The more ornate specimens were often carved with rams’ heads, drapery, husks, and other devices selling japanese tea tables antique .
Towards the end of the century the cabriole leg practically died right out 18th century chippendale dresser . Adam never used it upholstered wood chairs from 1930s . In most cases he preferred the square tapered leg with small square feet fashion 17th century . They were usually recessed in their tapered portion, a pendant of husks often being carved in the recess near the top old gate leg table ball feet . The leg at C, Fig second hand old oak table in staffordshire . 139, shows this detail antique ladik rug . Another common treatment was to carve a series of flutes along the length, the lower part often being filled in with reeds (see A in Fig french antique occasional tables . 139)•
A particularly fine example of an Adam dining table is given in Fig important american girandole mirror . 137 english hepplewhite dressing table . It is one of a pair napoleon antique campaign chair . In use the two would be placed together, flap to flap, so forming one large table meals in eighteenth century england . The flap is supported by a single leg made to pivot frosted glass vase with smokey streaks . Thus when not required for dining the tables could be placed flat against the wall and become useful side tables antique chinese circular revolving bookcase . The decorative treatment is well worth noting antique porclean handled sheffeld flatware . The tapered legs are fluted on all sides except one, this being carved with a crisscross design set in a recess antique table round drop leaf claw foot . At the top are paterx carved with leafwork theodore haviland 1958 pattern . The fluted top rail with the plain centre part carved with swags of husks is typically Adam english stoneware marks . He invariably introduced this centre panel french meals17th century .
An example of a small side table with turned and carved legs is given in Fig furniture cupboard design,side board,wood . 138 george hepplewhite bottle case . It exemplifies well the delicate treatment of which Adam was so fond meissen porcelain animalsfrederick augustus . Note the use of the centre panel again, this time of quite plain form see a silver sauceboat with a heated base . Other kinds of Adam legs and feet are given in Fig antique glass top tea table bird . 139•

Swansea and Nantgarw
The high reputation enjoyed by Welsh porcelain is very much deserved, for the body is truly beautiful and the decoration usually most elegant. Credit for the porcelain and the (albeit short) success of the Welsh factories lies firmly with the painter William Billingsley (1758-1828) who in 1813 brought to Nantgarw, near Cardiff, a new formula he had developed at Barr, Flight & Barr in Worcester. In 1814, with his backer, William Weston Young, Billingsley moved production to the Cambrian Works at Swansea. In 1817 he returned to Nantgarw, and in 1820 left for Coalport.
SWANSEA
Swansea made soft-paste porcelain, closer to the paste produced at Sevres than to Staffordshire bone china. Swansea paste is a glass-like, highly translucent body; three types were made, known as ‘: glassy”, “duck egg”, and “trident”. However, attempts to perfect the high-quality porcelain led to numerous firing problems; a very large proportion of wares were tlierefore lost in the kiln, and the factory struggled to make a profit.
Billingsley looked to France for inspiration, and most shapes and forms of decoration were in the French style – the height of fashion in the London market. The
delicate white porcelain was an ideal ground for flower-painting, and, in addition to Billingsley himself, many talented flower-painters were engaged at Swansea, including David Evans, Thomas Pardue (1770-1823), Henry Morris 1799-1880), and William Pollard (1803-54). Thomas Baxter (1782-1821), who later worked at Worcester, painted
atmospheric landscapes, figure subjects, and birds. Simple but elegant formal patterns were painted at Swansea, as well as rich “Japan” patterns; other rich decoration was added in London.
NANTGARW
By 1817 the Swansea venture was failing because of
continued firing problems, and Billingsley, striving to succeed on his own, moved back to Nantgarw where he erected new kilns. Nantgarw porcelain was still difficult to control, a problem that resulted most notably in a scarcity of teawares. Instead, plates could be fired with some success, and for a few years Nantgarw plates were made in reasonable quantity, although output was never large. A few wares were decorated in Wales, but most were sent to London to independent decorators, where the finest decoration, in the French style, was added; this included richly coloured grounds and ornate painting. Attempts to attribute painting to London artists as opposed to Welsh artists are always controversial, although it is likely that London painting was generally far superior to anything carried out at Nantgarw.
Although Nantgarw made extremely fine, beautiful porcelain, it was unable to make a profit. As a result the Venture failed, and in 1820 Billingsley retired to live near Coalport. Many unfinished pieces were left at Nantgarw, and some were decorated up to ten or even twenty years later by local artists such as Pardoc. Auctions held in 1821 and 1822 sold off the last of the wares.
• BODY both soft-paste porcelain; Swansea: types known as “glassy”, “duck egg”, and `trident”; Nantgarw: extremely fine and translucent
• FORMS teawares, flatwares, cabinet cups, ice pails, tea, dinner, and dessert services
• DECORATION superb flower-painting
• DECORATORS Baxter, Billingsley, Pollard, Pardoc,Morris; study can identify the characteristics of different Swansea flower-painters
• PATRONAGE Nantgarw received important commissions
from the aristocracy and local dignitaries
• BEWARE French porcelain was painted in London by the same artists who decorated Swansea and Nantgarw blanks; this can lead to a great deal of confusion
• COLLECTING Swansea shapes are well documented, and specimens must correspond exactly before a Welsh attribution can be claimed; correct identification of body and glaze is important, as Coalport took over some Nantgarw moulds and imitations are plentiful; Wares are often in good condition

Derby
William Duesbury the younger succeeded his
father in 1786 and guided the Derby factory through its best and most significant period. Production was aimed only at the wealthiest customers, with every piece finished to the highest standards.
DOMESTIC WARES
The speciality of Derby was cabinet wares, particularly cups or cans and saucers, or cabaret sets – far too expensive to use and intended purely to be admired. Decoration in panels or reserves was executed by such superb artists as Zachariah Boreman (1738-1810) and Thomas “Jockey” Hill (1753-1827) who painted landscapes, Richard Askew (active 1772-95) who was famous for figures, George Complin (active c.1755-95) who painted birds and fruit, and William Billingsley (1758-1828),the greatest of all English flower-painters. Derby rediscovered the charm of botanical decoration, and flower prints were accurately copied onto wonderful dessert services. Derby’s glaze was creamy white and very soft, accounting for a delightful, smooth, and subtle feeling quite unlike any other English porcelain. In consequence its wares are much in demand today, and the best vases and cabinet cups are hugely expensive.
During the early 19th century Derby excelled at copying colourful patterns inspired by old Japanese wares and really took this form of decoration to heart. Combinations of Chinese and Japanese designs were brought together in a totally English way to suit the
T The “Bemrose” garniture designed by Jean-Jacques Spangler (b.1752)
Named after William Bemrose, the collector and writer on Derby, this garniture borrows heavily from continental porcelain styles. These vases are also known as “Kedleston” after those in Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire. (c.1790-92; ht of vase 38.5cmll5in; value L)
Regency taste for Oriental styles. Derby sold its Imari patterns in competition with Coalport and Worcester, and mass-production methods were used to keep costs down. As a result the patterns were painted quickly,
giving each piece a spontaneity that can be highly decorative. Some of the Derby Imari designs have name such as the “Old Witches”, the “Tree of Life”, or the “Kings” pattern, which was a particular favourite.
FIGURES
Figure-making was always important at Derby, and in the 19th century the factory was still Britain’s principal producer; however, there was now serious competition from two other quarters. Staffordshire potters copied every new Derby figure in inexpensive earthenware as soon as it came on sale, and seriously threatened Derby’ monopoly. At the same time Meissen figures were imported in great quantity into Britain and found an appreciative market. Derby countered this new competition by copying other factories’ works. During the 1820s and 1830s the reproductions of the latest Meissen models even carried the Meissen crossed sword mark. However, the great period of Derby had ended in 1797 with the death of Duesbury, and the factory went into a steady decline, eventually closing in 1848. Other factories were subsequently established in Derby, the trios successful being the Derby Crown Porcelain Co. (est. 1870), which was styled Royal Crown Derby in 1890.
• pure white soft-paste porcelain (post-1770)
• GLAZE creamy; frequently stained by surface crazing
• DECORATION gilding is of the very best quality; some gilders are identifiable by a number; fine botanical studies; birds; landscapes; Japanese Imari patterns
• LEADING PAINTERS Boreman and Hill (landscapes), Askew (figures), Complin (birds among fruit), Billingsley (flowers)
• FIGURES style after Meissen; rich colouring, including use of deep blue and gold
Marks
1782-1825: marks carefully painted in blue or purple; after 1800 usually painted in red with less care
c.1820-40: although Robert Bloor suffered from mental illness from 1826, the period through to 1840 is named after him; mark printed in red

Porcelain
Plymouth, Bristol, and New Hall
English porcelain belonged to a type known technically as soft-paste, or “artificial”, porcelain, which lacked the beautiful hard whiteness of hard-paste porcelain such as that produced in China or at Meissen. However, the chemist William Cookworthy (1705-80) believed that hard paste could be made in Britain and searched for suitable raw materials. Kaolin (china clay), the essential ingredient in true porcelain, had been discovered in Cornwall in 1745, and Cookworthy patented several formulas containing this mineral to make what he believed to be the finest English porcelain.
PLYMOUTH AND BRISTOL
From c.1768 Cookworthy produced England’s first commercial hard-paste porcelain at his Plymouth works, but it was dogged by serious problems. A pure white glaze was rarely achieved – the creamy surface was frequently covered with black specks that gave it a dirty appearance. Like Meissen and other European makers, Plymouth experienced difficulties with its underglaze blue, which almost turned black, with severe blurring. Painters from Worcester were attracted to Plymouth, and the factory’s shapes and Oriental designs closely follow those of Worcester. Few collectors will admit that Plymouth was a failure, but when Cookworthy moved to Bristol in 1770 he had little of any real quality to show new investors.
The porcelain made by Cookworthyat Bristol was probably identical to his Plymouth wares, and it seems likely that much of the porcelain today called “Plymouth” was really made at Bristol. Improvements were made: John Toulouse, a modeller at Bow, came via Worcester and introduced new shapes and figures, mainly direct copies of the latest patterns of Meissen’s “Academic” period (1763-74). Bristol sometimes marked its wares with a copy of the Meissen crossed swords, a feature that often confuses present-day collectors – particularly since Bristol porcelain achieved a whiteness similar to that of Meissen after Richard Champion (1743-91) took over Cookworthy’s patents
in 1774. Champion made some beautiful porcelain, especially in the Neo-classical
style, but never in any great quantity because the works continued to be plagued by firing difficulties, notably “wreathing” – spiral ridges
on the surface caused by kiln distortion. Plates and dishes were placed on clay supports during firing to prevent warping. The factory closed in 1781.
NEW HALL
Despite the failure of Bristol, Champion still saw a future for English hard-paste porcelain and visited Staffordshire to try to sell his patent. A consortium of manufacturers showed an interest but realized
that Champion’s formula had to be adapted for mass production. As the New Hall Co., the consortium opened a factory c.1781 at Shelton to exploit an improved version of Champion’s porcelain body – the type now known as “hybrid hard paste”. The glaze tended to be greenish-grey, but it could be potted very thinly, and wreathing was a less severe problem. The factory was designed to make a profit and aimed its products at a mass market, ignoring more expensive pieces such as ornamental figures and vases. Tea and coffee services in a limited range of patterns comprised the bulk of New Hall’s output. Other factories, also concentrating on teawares, were established in competition, and each firm produced its own version of standard shapes – it is therefore important for collectors to learn the differences. New Hall continued into the 1830s, although its later products are not as collectable.
Plymouth (c.1768-70)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain
• GLAZE a pure white glaze was rarely achieved, because the creamy surface was frequently covered by a smoke of black specks that gave it a dirty appearance
• UNDERGLAZE BLUE almost black, with severe blurring
• DECORATION Oriental patterns following Worcester
Marks
This alchemical sign for tin (which was the main industry in Cornwall) was sometimes used
Bristol (1770-81)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain; very white after 1774
• FEATURES “wreathing” – ridges spiralling around the surface – can often be seen on cups and other hollow shapes owing to firing difficulties
• STYLE Neo-classical, continental
• DECORATION inspired by Meissen “Academic” wares
Marks
Mark in blue enamel, sometimes accompanied by numerals; Meissen crossed-swords mark also copied
New Hall (c.1781-1830s)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain, thinly potted
• GLAZE thick, dull, and greenish grey
• FORMS specialized in tea and coffee services aimed at the mass market; other items are extremely rare
Marks
Pattern numbers were introduced to enable customers to reorder easily, and these help with identification

Statues
Figures, more than any other category of decorative accessory, seem to say “Deco” best. The statues exhibit not only features commonly associated with Art Deco, but also they express the spirit of freedom and optimism in the future that prevailed at the time. It is not surprising that these personifications beguile collectors. As noted earlier, figures were so popular that they were fashioned into dual purpose articles as well as art objects. This section, however, contains only the latter. Statues, statuettes or figurines and a few head forms or busts are included. (For additional examples of figures, see Ashtrays, Bookends, Candle Holders, Incense Burners and Lamps.)
Most of the Deco figural subjects were women. Pieces were made with couples forming dance partners or duets. Men were also modeled as sportsmen or represented as mythical gods or even circus clowns. Animals made along Deco lines are not so rare as male examples but they are less prevalent than female themes. All kinds of animals, however, were made as decorative sculpture. Members of the cat family (jaguar, panther, tiger) and deer, elk and gazelles as well as dogs (like the greyhound) projected the essential components of the Deco image—speed, grace and sleekness. Certain animals, especially dogs, were often part of female dominated scenes. Even birds such as cockatoos, ducks, parrots and penquins were shaped in stylized forms to fit in with “modern” decor.
The nude or semi-nude female apparently was the most favorite figural topic of the period. It is held in no less esteem by collectors. Poses varied from lanquid, reclining positions to ones expressing movement. Grace and speed were implied by various dance positions or hair shaped as wings or fashioned in a “wind blown” style. Kneeling or standing figures with arms stretched forward symbolized movement into the future. Arms stretched overhead, perhaps holding a globe or sphere, seem to indicate awareness and interest in the world at large.
While the nude and semi-nude figures may suggest the spirit of the period, fully clothed models portray the dress and hair styles in vogue. Interest in other cultures was also exhibited by the figure’s costume. The Egyptian influence was dominant in the mid 1920’s, after the opening of King Tut’s tomb in 1923. Several of the figures shown in this section and some in other categories (see Lamps and Incense Burners) flaunt the trappings of Egyptian attire such as metal breastplates, harem pants and elaborate headdresses. Female figures with black finishes show the influence of African art and black American entertainers. Jazz musicians and torch singers became very popular during the 1920’s, especially in
France.
Decorative figures not only were made in a number of sizes and poses, but also they were made from many different materials, including bronze, copper, metal alloys, plaster, pottery and porcelain. The French bronzes are the most coveted and most expensive. Bronze combined with ivory and precious jewels, silver or gold is called “chryselephantine” work. D.H. Chiparus, who worked in France, is noted to have excelled in this type of sculpture. Prices for his original pieces are in the tens of thousands of dollars today. Collectors should be aware, however, that current bronze manufacturers reproduce or imitate some of his figures as well as several other famous sculptors of the period. Although advertised as manufactured with the “lost wax” method and sporting the same or similarly spelled names of well known artists such as Chiparus, Zach or Preiss, these bronzes are still only replicas and not from the period. Unfortunately, they are sometimes sold by dealers as authentic sculptures. Wholesale prices are not cheap, but do not be surprised to find that sum multiplied several times over when such an item is sold in a retail outlet.
Because bronzes were expensive to manufacture, it did not take entrepreneuers long to recognize the value of mass producing similar statues from metal alloys. Pot metal, white metal or spelter are names frequently used to identify such alloys. Psuedo bronze figures were made in both Europe and America. Even if a piece can be identified as being of French origin, do not assume the metal is bronze. Many of the pot metal pieces were executed quite well. Different patinations and finishes were used to give either a “bronze” look or colored surface. Some were even made with ivory faces and hands, imitating chryselephatine types. Fabricated ivory, often called “ivorene,” was sometimes used, however.
Patination and cold painted are two terms used to describe bronze finishes. Patination refers to a colored finish which is fired onto the metal and thus becomes pern-ranent. Cold painted means the finish was not fired onto the metal. Lacquer was applied to preserve the color, but this type of finish is not totally permanent. Some of the metal alloy figures were simply painted without any sealing coat. Consequently, over time, the paint has chipped or become noticeably worn. Those with apparent surface damage can sometimes be purchased for bargain prices. Dealers have them repainted, but prices should-not be the same as for those in good or original condition. Inspect figures carefully for detail to note signs of age and wear on finished as well as whether there are chips on the face, hair or limbs.
Because of the demand for Deco figures, pot metal statues are far from cheap. Those in good condition, depending on size, will cost several hundred dollars. It is not uncommon for examples to cost $1,000 or more, especially if it can be determined the piece was made in France. It is rare to find any authentic Deco metal figure for less than $100.
Porcelain figurines were made by several European factories prior to World War II. Goldscheider, an Austrian company, is well known for its Deco pieces. Some of the firms who are more famous for their table wares also produced figural items during that time. The Lenox china company in Trenton, New Jersey, made porcelain figures which portrayed Deco themes. Porcelain pieces are generally much more moderately priced than metal statues, but they still are not cheap. Few cost less than $200.
Earthenware or simple pottery figures were also made in this country and abroad. Usually earthenware
items are less expensive than those made of hard paste porcelain or bone china. Not only was the manufacturing process cheaper, but also earthenware is not as strong. It chips and breaks easily and also can become discolored or crazed over time. Pottery figures, however, are often comparable or higher in price than porcelain ones. Those made by American art potteries are very collectible. Some made by American companies, which produced inexpensive pottery dishes and accessories, also made a few figures. Such items were not the company’s main product, and thus the figures are scarce, as well as popular, and bring high prices compared with other items they manufactured.
The statues and figurines are grouped here according to their composition: Ceramic (pottery and porcelain), Plaster and Metals (bronze, copper & metal alloys).

Early porcelain
The porcelain factories established in France in the early 18th century manufactured soft-paste porcelain, since the kaolin necessary for the production of hard paste was not discovered in France until 1768. Early French porcelain, particularly that of Chantilly, is considered especially attractive by collectors because of its soft ivory or creamy colour. The first factory was established in the 1670s in Rouen by the Poterat family, but its output was much less significant than the later factories of Saint-Cloud, Chantilly, and Mennecy.
SAINT-CLOUD
In 1664 Claude Reverend obtained a privilege to experiment with the manufacture of porcelain in and around Paris. In 1674 he employed Pierre Chicaneau (d.1677), who is said to have discovered the recipe for soft-paste porcelain. Through the patronage of the Duke of Orleans, Chicaneau’s widow, Barbe Coudray (d.1717), was granted a privilege for the manufacture of faience and porcelain at Saint-Cloud in 1702.
A large range of wares was made at the factory, including ice pails, spice-boxes, snuff-boxes, bonbonnieres, and cutlery handles. A speciality was pot-pourri vases, usually left unpainted. Early decoration comprised underglaze blue borders of lambrequins. From c.1730 wares were left in the white and decorated with moulded prunes blossom, imitating Mane-de-Chine wares from Dehua in Fujian Province, China. More European designs, such as overlapping leaves and wading birds, were introduced as moulded decoration. In the same period, the painters copied Japanese wares in the Kakiemon and Imari patterns.
CHANTILLY
In 172.5 Louis-Henri of Bourbon, Prince of Conde, founded a porcelain factory on his estate at Chantilly. The factory is celebrated for its wares decorated in the style of Japanese Kakiemon and Chinese famine-vote porcelain. Many items – jardinieres, teapots, jugs, and plates – were probably copied directly from Oriental originals in the Duke’s collection. Figures of Chinese and Japanese characters were also a speciality of the factory before c.1750 and were decorated in the Kakiemon style.
After the mid-18th century, decoration of small scattered sprays of European flowers was introduced. In 1753 Louis XV issued an edict restricting the use of gilding and certain colours by French porcelain factories to protect the commercial interests of Vincennes. Permitted decoration generally consisted of simple floral designs in underglaze blue, or blue or pink enamels. During the 19th century Chantilly porcelain was extensively copied by the factory of Edme Samson & Cie in Paris.
MENNECY
In 1734 the faience manufacturer Francois Barbin (1689-1765) opened a factory producing soft-paste porcelain in Paris under the patronage of the Duke of Villeroy. Wares in the style of Vincennes, Saint-Cloud, and Meissen as well as imitations of Japanese Kakiemon porcelain were made. In 1748 the factory moved to Mennecy, near Paris, where custard-cups and covers, moulded with spiral or vertical fluting, and bell-shaped ice-cups, influenced by Vincennes and Sevres, were produced. These were painted with sprays Of flowers in a palette dominated by puce and red. Before 1750 the factory produced stiffly modelled Oriental figures, usually decorated in the Kakiemon palette, and after 1750 rustic peasants, children at play, allegorical figures, and, more rarely, commedia dell’arte figures.
Saint-Cloud (1664-1766)
• BODY creamy-white or ivory soft paste, with a soft glaze that is greenish where it gathers
• DECORATION ION lambrequin borders in underglaze blue; moulded prunes blossom; stiffly painted copies of Japanese Kakiemon and Imari patterns and palettes

• BODY soft-paste porcelain with a distinctive opaque, creamy tin glaze, which makes it look similar to faience; 19th-century copies are greyish and glassy
• DECORATION before the 1750s Kakiemon and famille verte patterns outlined in black – these wares are the most collectable; from the 1750s European flowers in underglaze blue, or blue or pink monochrome
• FIGURES Oriental figures painted in Kakiemon palette

Mennecy (1734-1806)
• BODY similar to Saint-Cloud, with a soft, ivory tone and a slightly green tint to the glaze
• DECORATION Kakiemon style; sprays of European flowers in a pastel palette dominated by puce and red
• FIGURES stiffly modelled figures of Orientals, painted in Kakiemon style; later, figures of peasants, children, putti, and allegorical subjects in line with Rococo taste

Vienna
After unsuccessful attempts to make porcelain, Claudius Innocentius Du Paquier (d.1751) bribed the Meissen arcanist Christoph Conrad Hunger (active c.1717-48) to come to Vienna in 1717 to teach him the secret formula. Hunger’s expertise proved to be limited, so Du Paquier employed Bottger’s kilnmaster Samuel Stolzel (d.1737) in 1719, and the factory made its first successful hard-paste porcelain.
THE DU PAQUIER PERIOD: 1719-44
The shapes of Du Paquier’s wares arc similar to early Meissen, as they are copied from Baroque silver and are of symmetrical form embellished with scrollwork. The factory actory also made some original items: tall beakers, sometimes with moulded borders and usually on a narrow foot; bottles or flasks applied with masks or modelled with animal-head spouts; and double-handled beakers on large, oval trembleuse stands.
Flower decoration was copied from Chinese and Japanese wares with a palette dominated by iron red, green and manganese purple; contemporary Meissen wares are much closer to the originals. Vienna, however, pioneered the use of European flower decoration on porcelain c.1730. At first these were precisely painted in the style of botanical engravings, but from c.1740 to 1745 they arc smaller and scattered, with much freer brushwork. Another innovation was the use of black, puce, or iron-red monochrome for battle and hunting scenes and chinoiserie; black monochrome, known as “Schwarzlot” (”black lead”), was a common technique among the Hausmaler who worked for the factory. These scenes were often enclosed by borders or cartouches of Baroque scrollwork with Laub- and Bandelwerk, (”leaf- and strapwork”) ornament.
FIRST STATE PERIOD: 1744-1841
Although the earls Vienna wares were successful, the factory’s finances were always precarious. In 1744 Du Paquier sold the factory to the Austrian state, which had been supporting it for many years. Because its financial troubles might
have been due to over-production, the
factory did not introduce any new designs
until c.1750. From this date, wares and figures were made in the fashionable Rococo style. The paste was improved c.1749 with the use of a much finer clay imported from Hungary.
With the outbreak of the Seven Years War in 1756 there was a new influx to Vienna of Meissen craftsmen who influenced the style of decoration; typical themes were scattered European flowers, unframed monochrome landscapes, and scenes within cartouches and paintings in the manner of Boucher, Watteau, and Terriers.
The greatest innovation of this period was the
wide variety of figures, particularly those modelled
by Johann Josef Niedermayer (d.1784), chief modeller from 17 47
. A series of dwarfs copied from engravings by the French printmaker Jacques Callot (1592-1635) is particularly notable. Many were left in the white, while others were painted in very pale colours such as lilac
lemon leon yellow. The bases arc usually a simple pad shape, and arc frequently embellished with a wavy gilt border around the bottom edge.
THE SORGENTHAL PERIOD: 1784–c.1830
After several financial problems at the factory Conrad Sorgel von Sorgenthal was appointed director in 1784. Phasing out the Rococo style in favour of refined Neoclassicism, was responsible for the production of
superb wares equalled only by the Berlin factory. Simple, geometric forms were adopted in line with the severe Neo-classical style, and urn and amphorae shapes were directly copied from antique pieces excavated at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The factory was particularly famous for its tete-a-tete services and solitaires.
The decoration of Vienna wares was among the finest of the period. Coloured grounds with sumptuous gilding and rich painting meant that none of the white body of the porcelain was left showing. Vienna is especially associated with raised gilding with tooled architectural ornament. From 1791, following the example of Sevres, the chemist Josef Leithner developed brilliant ground colours, in particular a claret and a dark blue. The overall effect was enhanced by the fine painting of Classical subjects, topographical views, and botanical Subjects in central or reserved panels. The greatest exponent of botanical subjects was Josef Nigg (active 1800-43), whose most celebrated works are minutely painted flower still-lifes on rectangular plaques.
Figures were made on a limited scale at the end of the 18th century. Generally in biscuit porcelain, they were based on Classical sculptures and Pompeian paintings, or were busts of the imperial family and such luminaries as the composer Haydn. The most important modeller was Anton Grassi (1755-1807), who for several months in 1792 visited Rome, where he sketched and noted the recently excavated Classical sculpture.
After the death of Sorgenthal, Matthias Niedermayer (d.1827) became director. The factory was still producing Neo-classical-style wares, but by the 1830s the restrained 18th-century style had been replaced by the heavier, rounded shapes that characterize the Biedermeier taste. Painters continued to embellish plaques, trays, services, and vases with copies of Old Masters, and original botanical, topographical, and Classical compositions; however, the overall decoration is less rich (often with areas of white porcelain showing) and slightly poorer in execution.
AFTER c.1830
Although it had encountered various problems from the beginning of the 19th century from c.1830 the Vienna

factory entered a serious period of decline, producing inexpensive, rather poor-quality porcelain with transfer-printed decoration to keep up with demand and to try to compete with mass-produced goods, particularly those made in Bohemia. Attempts were made to turn it into an art institute and a model factory, but in 1864 Emperor Francis Joseph ordered its closure.
Subsequently, large quantities of undecorated Vienna porcelain, some dating back to the beginning of the 19th century, were sold off to other factories and decorators. Such wares were decorated in the Classical Revival style of the Sorgenthal period, with heavy gilt borders, Classical motifs, and topographical scenes, often reserved on a claret ground. As the wares were made at the Vienna factory, they bear the underglaze blue shield mark of Vienna and on this basis could be mistaken as original; however, the decoration is much less refined and sometimes verges on extremely coarse. These wares are now described as “Vienna” pieces.
Numerous firms in Bohemia, Silesia, and Germany (particularly Dresden and Thuringia) made their own wares in the Vienna style during the last quarter of the 19th century. The Augarten Factory (est. 1922), in Vienna, continues to reproduce earlier Vienna porcelain, mostly in the Neo-classical and Biedermeier styles; its products are also marked with the underglaze blue shield.
1719-44
• BODY creamy-white hard paste; smoky, thin glaze with greenish hue
• STYLE heavy Baroque forms and dense, symmetrical decoration
• PALETTE iron red, green, and manganese purple for Oriental flowers; pale, delicate colours for European flowers; black, puce, and iron-red monochrome
• DI CORATION Oriental and European flowers,
chinoiseries; battle, hunting, and mythological scenes; latticework and Laub- und Bandelwerk decoration
1744–84
• BODY greyish hard paste; white and glassy glaze
• DECORATION ION European flowers, monochrome landscapes, copies of French and Dutch paintings
• FIGURES left white or painted in pale colours
• BASES pad, sometimes with a wavy gilt border
Marks
This mark was made in underglaze blue from c.1749; it was sometimes impressed mid-1740s
1784—c.1830
• BODY warmer-coloured hard paste
• STYLE Nco-classical, rich Empire, and Biedermeier
• DECORATION raised gilding; claret and dark blue grounds; mythological and Classical scenes and topographical views

In the 18th century, as the fashion for porcelain reached its peak, many porcelain factories were established outside Germany and France, the main centres of production. Many new factories were founded by arcanists, modellers, and decorators who exploited their knowledge of porcelain manufacture, moving from factory to factory throughout Europe. Unsurprisingly, most of the smaller European operations imitated the styles of Meissen and Sevres, although their wares sometimes display an interesting mixture of influences.
THE LOW COUNTRIES
In 1750 Francois-Joseph Peterinck (1719-99) established a factory in Tournai and, with the help of the arcanist Robert Dubois, produced soft-paste porcelain. The influence of Meissen in the tablewares can be seen in the moulded basket-weave borders and the spiral patterns around the rims of plates, while the decoration is more English-inspired. The specialities of Tournai were exotic birds and scenes taken from Aesop’s fables in underglaze blue, both of which were used at Chelsea and Worcester. Typical of Tournai, too, are landscape vignettes in puce or purple monochrome, surrounded by small sprays of flowers. The factory also made a limited range of galanterie – small decorative objects such as snuff-boxes.
Tournai produced a large range of figures and groups following contemporary French taste in their subject-matter, in particular pastoral scenes of shepherds and children by artists who had worked at Mennecy. The thickly glazed groups are painted in a pale palette or left in the white, but lack crisp modelling. Also typical of Tournai are figures and groups in biscuit porcelain, especially those on high rockwork bases around a central tree; groups like these were made at Derby.
Peterinck retired in 1796, and ownership of Tournai passed to his daughter Amelie de Bettignics (1757–after 1805). The factory continued making simple household wares, but no more figures, until the mid-19th century. Many 18th-century wares were sold undecorated, and were later painted at a porcelain factory in The Hague set up in 1776 by a German porcelain dealer, Anton Lyncker (1718-81). The Hague factory also made its own hard-paste porcelain wares, decorated in a manner similar to Tournai’s. Confusingly, both The Hague factory’s own products and the Tournai pieces that it decorated have the same mark; any soft-paste ware bearing an overglaze mark of a stork is likely to be (but by no means definitely is) of Tournai origin.
The first successful Dutch porcelain factor was established in Weesp, near Amsterdam, in 1757 by the Irish arcanist D. MacCarthy, who had been involved in attempts to manufacture porcelain in Copenhagen. This factory has a complex history of ownership. In 1771 it changed hands and moved to Oude Loosdrecht, and in 1782 moved to Amstel, near Amsterdam, where it remained until its closure in 1820. All the Dutch factories used a good-quality white hard paste with a clear glaze. Some small figures of putti holding salts were made at Weesp. At Oude Loosdrecht and Amstel, production was focused entirely on wares – mainly tea, coffee and dinner services. In both form and decoration
the wares are similar to Meissen and
other German porcelain.
SWITZERLAND
Most porcelain factories in Europe were established by aristocratic patrons who could afford luxury products; in Switzerland, where there was no monarchy, a group of prominent citizens established the first porcelain factory in Zurich in 1763. The factory initially made a soft-paste porcelain but switched to the production of hard paste c.1765.
Reflecting the demands of Switzerland’s dominant middle-class market, the bulk of Zurich
production was tea, coffee and dinner services. These generally followed German Rococo and Neo-classical styles, but the complex scrolled handles on coffee- and teapots were unique to Zurich. In terms of ecoration, the Zurich factory is associated with small pastoral landscapes in a palette dominated by blues and greens. Sortie exquisitely painted landscapes in warmer colours arc by Salomon Gessner (1739-79), 1739-79), one of the founders; unfortunately the enamels arc often flaky because the paint was applied too thickly. The colourful, naturalistic sprays of flowers familiar on 18th-century Meissen also featured at Zurich, although the flower sprays tend to be looser. Other kinds of decoration included a version of the Oriental banded hedge pattern, Usually in purple, and vignettes of birds on branches.
Almost 400 different types of figure igure and group were made, mostly in the late Rococo style. The famous Meissen series of the street vendors of London and Paris may have inspired the set of 42 street-
sellers called the “Cries of Zurich”. The finest figures were probably modelled by Valentin Sonnenschein (1749-1828), from Ludwigsburg, and, perhaps because of his influence, many Zurich figures resemble those made there. The factory closed in 1791, owing
to financial problems caused by competition from other factories and imports of inexpensive creamware from England.
SCANDINAVIA
In the 1730s several French
and German arcanists, including Christoph Conrad Hunger of Meissen
and Vienna, produced soft-paste porcelain
on a limited scale in Copenhagen. In 1774 the first hard-paste porcelain factory was founded there. Queen Caroline Matilda was the main shareholder of this factory; after her exile it was bought in 1779 by King Christian VII and styled the Royal Danish Porcelain Factory. A fine, white hard paste with a clear glaze was used to make wares mainly in a severe Neo-classical style, much influenced by Berlin, Vienna, and Sevres.
Cylindrical teapots and coffee-cups with angular handles, and trays with angled sides, are typically embellished with oval and cylindrical medallions enclosing landscapes, topographical views, or portraits in sepia, puce, or pink monochrome, surrounded with swags and coloured borders heightened with gilding. Botanical subjects were also popular, the most famous
example being the 1,800-piece “Flora Danica” service ( 1789-1802) that was probably made for Catherine the Great of Russia.
The factory declined in the early 19th century, but under the direction (1828-57) of Gustav Friedrich Hetsch it produced biscuit figures, notably those based on the work of the Neoclassical sculptor Berthel Thorvaldsen. The factory enjoyed a renaissance when in 1885 the architect and painter Arnold Krug (1856-1931) was appointed artistic director. With new glaze technology, he introduced a revolutionary form of underglaze painting, using simple washes of blues and greys to produce an effect very similar to Japanese pottery. Johann Ludwig Eberhard Ehrenreich (1722-1803)
produced porcelain between 1766 and 178 at Marieberg, near Stockholm.
It initially used a soft paste for Rococo wares, especially spiral-fluted custard cups similar
to those made at Mennecy.
A hard-paste porcelain was
introduced from 1777.

The great success of Meissen encouraged other European rulers to set up their own factories in the 1740s and 1750s. By the 1770s there were almost 20 factories in Europe producing hard-paste porcelain, often imitating the wares first produced at Meissen. The most significant are discussed below, although there were also several less important factories in the Saxon province of Thuringia producing high-quality wares on a much smaller basis, including those at Gotha (1756-1834), Kloster-Veilsdorf (est. 1760), Wallendorf (est. 1764), and Limbach (est. 1772).
HOCHSTIn
1746 the Elector of Mainz granted a privilege to Adam Friedrich von Lowenfink (1714-54) to establish a faience factory in Hochst, near Mainz. The factory manufactured porcelain only after the arrival of the arcanist Josef Jakob Ringlet ( 1730-1804) in 1750. Hochst became well known for its porcelain figures modelled by several notable craftsmen, such as Simon Feilner (1726-98), who modelled a dramatic set of commedia dell’arte figures and a few elaborate Rococo figures, Johann Friedrich Luck ( 1727-97), his brother Karl Gottlob Luck (c.1730-75), and Johann Peter Melchior (1742-1825), who became master modeller in 1767. Although Melchior’s figures often have a stiff or stylized appearance, there is much careful detailing in such features as the folds of clothes. One of the most characteristic elements of Melchior’s figures is the mound base, with either grass and earth, or rockwork detailed in green and brown.
The range of wares included trembleuse cups and saucers with plain surfaces and small modelled details such as animal or scrollwork spouts and wishbone handles. Wares were painted with landscape vignettes With figures, most frequently peasants or rustic scenes in the style of Dutch paintings, surrounded by small, scattered flowers. Polychrome decoration was common, but a distinctive palette of puce or green monochrome was also used.
The factory’s financial situation was always precarious, and it closed in 1796. The moulds of the Melchior models were sold to the Damm Pottery (est. 1827) in Aschaffenburg, where the designs were reproduced in faience from c.1830, although most existing pieces date from the mid-19th century. These arc often very similar to the porcelain originals and are highly collectable in their own right.
FRANKENTHAL
From 1752 Paul Antoine Hannong (1700-60) manufactured porcelain at his father’s faience factory (est. 1721) in Strasbourg with the help of Ringlet, who had previously worked at Hochst. In 1754 Louis XV banned the production of porcelain at Strasbourg in order to protect Vincennes from competition, and Hannong moved the factory to Frankenthal near Mannheim in the German Palatinate; production of hard-paste porcelain started the following year.
Frankenthal is noted for its figures, of which 800 different subjects have been identified. Among the finest are pastoral couples beneath elaborate Rococo arbours characterized by rather stiff modelling. The first modeller, Johann Wilhelm Lanz (active 1755-61), introduced scrolled Rococo bases. In 1762 Karl Theodor, the Elector Palatine, bought the factory and appointed Konrad Linck (1730-93) as chief modeller. Linck modified the style of the figures, enhancing the sculptural qualities of such features as drapery, and adding yellow and green grass or moss to the bases; he also introduced the first elements of Neo-classicism to the factory’s style. Johann Peter Melchior joined the factory from Hochst in 1779 and continued to make his distinctive models of children, often in biscuit porcelain.
Frankenthal produced a typical range of tableware, the forms of which were for the most part fairly simple with few sculptural details; plates, dishes, and large tea and coffee vessels often have moulded or pierced basketwork runs. Decoration of these wares was in a typical palette of strong, dark colours. The most common subject was naturalistic sprays of large flowers. loosely painted and surrounded by scattered smaller flowers. Jakob Osterspey (c.1730-82) specialized in mythological figures and musicians in idealized landscapes, after paintings by Watteau and Boucher. Also popular was trompe l`oeil decoration imitating grained wood, while in the 1770s to 1880s crimson and gold flowers over gilt-striped grounds were common.
When the Elector succeeded to the title of Elector of Bavaria in 1777 he moved to Munich, and without his support the factory went into decline. After French troops occupied the Palatinate in 1794 the factory was requisitioned, finally closing in 1799.
NYMPHENBURGIn
1753 the Elector of Bavaria established a porcelain factory in Neudeck, and in 1761 the factory was moved near to the Elector’s palace at Nymphenburg. The most outstanding products made at this factory are indisputably the figures by Franz Anton Bustelli
( 1722-63), one of the greatest exponents of the Rococo style. His forms are sty lized and gently twisting, often Slightly elongated, with simple, curvaceous forms. Many figures and groups were left unpainted or were painted with broad pastel washes. In t797 the modeller Johann Peter Melchior joined the factory from Frankenthal and produced Neo-classical biscuit figures. Tablewares include teapots that often have characteristic double-scroll handles and long spouts in the form of a swan’s head. The most popular type of decoration during the Rococo period was loose bouquets of flowers. Landscapes were either left untrained, half enclosed by rocaille frames, or framed by gilt cartouches.
LUDWIGSBURG
This factory was established by the Duke of Wurtemberg in 1758-9. The poor quality of the Ludwigsburg paste compared with some other German factories meant that it was more suitable for figures than for plain or sparsely decorated tableware. Under the direction of Gottlieb Friedrich Riedel the factory produced a variety of figures that appear rather stiff and very simplified, especially when compared with some of the more sophisticated work of such factories as Nymphenburg. The decoration is restrained, and the painting, most often in pastel colours, is precise. A series of miniatures made in the 1760s is among the most celebrated of the Ludwigsburg figures; representing market traders as well as courtiers, the figures were intended to form a miniature scene of an annual fair in Ludwigsburg. Teapots are generally bullet-shaped, often with fruit knops and bird’s-head spouts. Saucers are flared, as opposed to the rounded shape made elsewhere in Germany. Plates, dishes, tureens, and bowls typically feature a band of moulded and sectioned basketwork around the rims. Typical painted decoration includes unframed landscapes and scattered flowers. When the court moved to Stuttgart in the 1770x, the factory went into decline, arid it finally closed in 1824.
Hochst (1746-96)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain; opaque creamy white; generally flawless
• DECORATION landscape Vii usually of peasants Or rustic scenes in the manner of David Terriers (1610-90) with large figures; chinoiserie figures; naturalistic flower sprays
• tenses mound bases with grass and earth, or rockwork detailed in bright green and brown
Marks
Underglaze blue mark used from c.1750
Frankenthal (1755-99)
• Bony hard-paste porcelain; creamy off-white with a thin glaze but can tend toward greyish off-white, with tiny black specks of ash, or opaque white
• STYLE simple forms, plates, dishes, and large tea and Coffee vessels, often with moulded and sectioned or
pierced basketwork rims
• PALEI Fr. rich green, grey, carmine, brown, puce
• DI CORA I ION naturalistic flower sprays in style of Strasbourg; chinoiserie scenes with large figures; large birds in wooded landscapes
• FIGURES stiff modelling of a variable (often high)
quality; pastoral couples; some in biscuit porcelain
• BASES elaborate, with undulating and arched Rococo scrollwork, and often tufts of green moss
Marks
Underglaze blue Mark used during the period when Elector Karl Theodor owned the factory (1761-93)
Nymphenburg (est. 1753)BODY
• hard-paste porcelain; slightly creamy off-white,a dense with a wet-looking glaze, with greenish tone where it collects in hollows and corners
• STYLE characteristic double-scroll handle; simple “U”-shape for coffee-CLIPS and sugar-bowls
• PALETTE ochre, puce, mushroom-pink, brown, red
• DECORATION very skilful naturalistic flower-painting; landscapes with Classical ruins, statues, and small figures; large single figures
• FIGURES stylized, slightly elongated and curvaceous forms; later, stiffer Louis XVI-sty le figures; coloured deep pink and orange/tomato red in flat washes
• Bases on Bustelli figures these appear integral to the figure – flat, edged with asymmetrical scrollwork; also stepped pedestals
Marks
Impressed on wares made during the “Bustelli” period ( 1754-65)
Ludwigsburg (1727-1824)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain; greyish white and close-grained with distinctive smoky glaze, tends to be green where pooled
• FORMS bullet-shaped teapots; saucers with flared rims; Spouts in the form of birds or dragons, “C”-shaped scroll handles with shell or feather thumb-pieces
• PALETTE russet, puce, dark brown, green, yellow
• DECORATION naturalistic flower sprays; realistic figures after Watteau; fruit and flowers in Meissen style; landscapes with two or three tufts of foliage at the base
• FIGURES stiff with crisp modelling; coloured greyish puce, cobalt, yellow
• BASES grass and rockwork mounds or slabs, Rococo
FORSTENBERG
Charles I, Duke of Brunswick, established a factory at Furstenberg in 1747, but attempts to manufacture porcelain were unsuccessful until the arrival of Johann Kilian Benckgraff (1708-58) from Hochst in 1753. The factory encountered many technical problems, and early wares and figures often have flaws, such as black specks of ash in the body, or are slightly misshapen or cracked.
Many of the figures produced at Furstenberg imitated those produced at Meissen, Hochst, and Berlin. The most important modeller was Simon Feilner (1726-98) from Hochst, who became chief modeller in 1754; his work included a fine series of miners (1757-8) and, most notably, characters from the commedia dell’arte (C.1754). During the Neo-classical period the factory made Classical figures, including a series of biscuit busts of Classical poets and philosophers on pedestals. Copies of figures from 18th-century moulds were made in the 19th century, but can be distinguished from the originals by the clumsier decoration and harsher colours.
Early Fiirstenberg tablewares are particularly distinctive as they are often decorated with elaborate moulded Rococo scrollwork to disguise the flaws in the paste. Early decoration included flower sprays, sometimes in a green monochrome that indicates the influence of the Hochst craftsmen working at Fiirstenberg. Landscapes with buildings were generally left unframed and were painted in predominantly dark greens and browns. One of the factory’s most easily identifiable decorative themes is finely detailed poultry and other domestic birds perched on fences or branches.
BERLIN
The first porcelain factory at Berlin was founded by Wilhelm Kaspar Wegely in 1752. Some figures were copied directly from Meissen or from prints, and a series of small putti with large heads and limbs, dressed as members of various trades and professions, was also made. Tablewares and vases were painted in the style of Meissen, with naturalistic flowers, landscapes, and figures in the
manner of the French pastoral painter Antoine Watteau. Moulded flowers and foliage, and basketwork rims, were specialities of Wegely, and a range of moulded baskets was also made. The factory closed in 1757 because of financial problems during the Seven Years War.
In 1761 the merchant Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky set up another factory with craftsmen who had worked at Wegely’s factory, but it went bankrupt and was bought in 1763 63 by Frederick the Great. The new factory, which was known as the Royal Porcelain Factory, produced
wares in a distinctive late Rococo style. Tablewares were embellished with trelliswork, pierced rims, and flowers entwined in basketwork patterns. Painted decoration included scale-ground borders and naturalistic flowers, animals, and birds. The modeller Wilhelm Christoph Meyer (1723-85) produced the series “Cries of Berlin” as well as allegorical and Classical figures characterized by elongated forms and small heads. They are set on small, square bases and painted in salmon pink, puce, and black. Neo-classical wares introduced in the 1770s include vases and cylindrical cups. The decoration was sumptuous, with gilded Neo-classical motifs, views of Berlin, and monochrome portrait medallions. During the 1780s figures set on high pedestal or rocky bases imitated Neo-classical sculpture.
Furstenberg (1753-c.1800)
• BODY hard-paste porcelain; generally whitish with a glassy glaze, early paste often had flaws
• STYLE “C”-scroll handles; early pieces sometimes have moulded scrollwork or frames
• PALETTE dominated by greens and browns; also monochrome green or purple; figures often left white
• DECORATION unframed landscapes; birds or fowl; portrait medallions
• FIGURES Feilner’s miners were both painted and unpainted; Neo-classical biscuit figures are typical; skin is often highly coloured
• BASES simple mound or pad
Marks
Underglaze-blue mark used during the early period of production
Berlin: Wegely factory (1752-7)
• BODY creamy white, similar to Meissen but with a thinner glaze lending an opaque look
• GLAZE very glassy, similar to Meissen
• PALETTE white or painted in puce, iron red, or black
• DECORATION moulded flowers, trailing foliage, and basket rims; naturalistic flower-painting

Porcelain
Hausmaler
From the 17th century in Germany and Bohemia there Was an important industry of freelance artists who decorated faience, to help factories meet the demand for highly decorated pottery. These decorators, known as “Hausmaler” (”home painters”), worked in their own studios or workshops. Additionally, hoping to profit from the new porcelain industry, Hausmaler in Augsburg and elsewhere bought whitewares from Meissen in bulk and decorated them.
AUGSBURG
Hausmaler from Augsburg were among the first to decorate Meissen porcelain outside the factory, and thus their decoration is usually found on tableware of the 1720s. Gilt decoration is particularly associated with the Augsburg workshops and is the most common form of Hausmaler work found today. The best-known and most prolific studio was that of the brothers Abraham and Bartholomaus Seuter (1688-1747 and 1678-1754), who specialized in gilt decoration, particularly chinoiserie scenes in the manner of Johann Gregorius Horoldt ( 1696-1775) of Meissen, and hunting, genre, and mythological scenes set within ornate gilt scrollwork or foliate borders, or reversed on a solid gilt ground.
The other major Hausmaler workshop in Augsburg during the first half of the 18th century was that of the Auffenwerths, who painted chinoiseries in a style that is very similar to the Seuter workshop but which can be distinguished by its more feathery appearance. Sabina Auffenwerth (b.1706) is the best known of the family, for her polychrome chinoiserie panels in the style of Meissen, and genre scenes with large figures, sometimes painted in monochrome black, purple, or red, with the faces and arms highlighted in flesh tones.
OTHER CENTRES OF PRODUCTION
One of the most important Hausmaler in Germany was Ignaz Bottengruber (active 1720-30), who worked in Breslau. His work is characterized by detailed designs, high-quality gilding, and varied and subtle tones. He specialized in Bacchic, hunting, and military scenes framed by rich scrollwork, in addition to mythological and allegorical subjects. Ignaz Preissler (1670-1741), the son of a celebrated glass-decorator, Daniel Preissler ( 1736-1733), also worked in Breslau and later in Bohemia; he painted townscapes, landscapes, chinoiseries, and mythological scenes in black monochrome, known as “Schwarzlot” (”black lead”), or even in red monochrome.
The most prolific Hausmaler workshop of the later 18th century was that of Franz Ferdinand Meyer (active 1747-94) who worked in Pressnitz,
Bohemia. His work is recognizable by a
cool palette dominated by light green
and iron red, broad gilt scrollwork borders, and bouquets of flowers around the borders. The painter
F.J. Ferner (active 1745-50) may
have been one of Meyer’s assistants, because his style is similar. Ferner added enamelled and gilt decoration
of flowers, animals, figures, and trees to pieces decorated in underglaze blue at the Meissen factory.
KEY FACTS
• PALL I 1E monochrome red, purple, or black, and gilding are most typical of Hausmaler wares, but polychrome decoration is also found
• SUBJECTS chinoiseries, large figure scenes, landscapes,
mythological, and hunting scenes
Marks
Pieces decorated by Meyer and Ferner generally have the :Meissen crossed swords mark in underglaze blue; after c.1760 Meissen
introduced the cancelled crossed swords mark on imperfect or blank wares in order to prevent its products from being associated with the work of incompetent decorators