Posts Tagged ‘seating’

SETTLES, CHAIRS, AND STOOLS
It has been already noted that the chest was often used as a seat, and at a time when furniture was scarce one can understand that it would conveniently fulfil the purpose. Just what the first chair was like is doubtful. The writer came across the curious Penitent stool, Fig. 16, in the old church at Fordwich, in Kent, and it may be that a similar structure was used for secular purposes. It is a solid block of oak with a sort of huge notch cut in it to form a seat. The church itself dates from before the Norman Conquest, though the date of the stool itself is uncertain.
The earliest form of seating accommodation was probably evolved from the early planked chest as suggested by the dotted lines in the left hand illustration in Fig. 13. The construction of the two is practically identical, and one can conceive a craftsman of some imagination cutting away the front and back and evolving a long form of the kind in Fig. ig. The only real difference is that in the latter the ends or legs are given a cant to give stability, and are shaped out in Gothic form. Also the long rails are fitted in slots in the legs instead of being nailed to notches at the outside, and the underside is cut away in imitation of the heading of a Gothic arch.
The two stools in Fig. 20 show clearly this stage of development. That to the left is entirely of the planked chest formation, whilst the other has the refinements already noted in the use of slots to contain the side rails and the shaping of the rails and legs.
Just as the framed-up chest replaced the planked type, so a framed construction came to be used for stools. The method used for the one probably gave the suggestion for the other. Fig. 21 shows a stool of this type, and it is interesting to note that the chest idea is still retained in that a box is formed beneath the seat. The carved flutes partly filled with millings are a feature that was used considerably in Elizabethan times and in the following century.
Settles.—Returning to Fig. 13 it will be seen that the development of the settle from the framed-up chest is suggested. It seems a likely theory that this is what happened. The disadvantage of using a chest as a seat must have become obvious, and as men began to make their houses more comfortable and were able to afford more luxury it probably occurred to someone that by suitable adaptation the chest could be made far more comfortable. It meant merely that the back posts would have to be continued up to enable a back framing to be added, and the front posts taken up high enough to provide support for the arms.
The result was the form of settle shown in Fig. 15, which is virtually just a chest with the back and arms above it. The chest portion is retained with the seat acting as a lid. It seems that sometimes the chest was omitted, as shown in Fig. 14, though even here the panelled front is retained.
FIG. 26. SIDE TABLE WITH GOTHIC DETAILS.
Early 16th century.
A piece such as this would probably have stood in the dining hall of a
manor house. It is virtually a chest with the corner posts made extra
long to form legs. The Gothic tracery designs carved In the panels are
pierced right through.
This would be done partly from convention, and partly because it helped to keep away draughts which must have been strongly in evidence in early houses. This illustration is from a small piece of carving cut out of a solid block, and now in South Kensington Museum, and its chief interest from our point of view lies in its showing the form of settle used in the late fifteenth century.
As furniture became more plentiful, and there was no longer the rigid need for economy, the chest portion was eliminated entirely, the under-portion being made up of an open framing of turned legs and stretchers.
Evolution of the Chair.—The development of the chair was identical with that of the settle. It was really just a short chest or box with back and arms above it. That in Fig. 17 shows the early type. It is not suggested that this was the earliest form of chair (forgetting the Fordwich example, Fig. 16), but that the evolution of the domestic chair came about in this way. There is of course the famous coronation chair in Westminster Abbey which dates back to the fourteenth century, and there are various other early Gothic chairs in churches and halls in various parts of the country, but these were made for special purposes and cannot be classed in any way as domestic pieces.
By omitting the lower box portion the chair became less cumbersome, and, as we have noted, the need for economy was not of such importance. A particularly fine example dating from the end of the Tudor Gothic period is that in Fig. 18. It now stands in the museum at South Kensington, and there are several features about it that make a close examination worth while.
Firstly, the back is given a backward rake, a detail that soon occurred to the carpenters once the idea of a chair had been thought of. At first the back had been continued straight up (see the settle in Fig. 14), but any man who has sat in a straight-backed church pew for any length of time will appreciate how really uncomfortable this can become, and a similar conviction must have come into the minds of the early carpenters—or possibly the people who had the chairs made. Consequently the back was made to slope, but the legs were still kept upright, probably because the old convention derived from the chest structure did not suggest the desirability of giving them a corresponding slope.
It is surelya rather remarkable thing that for the whole of the sixteenth century, and for the better part of the next, chairs were still made with straight, upright back legs. One would imagine that it would occur to a man leaning back in a chair that some means might be invented of preventing the chair from tilting right back. It is true that the Elizabethan chairs were heavy, and this would certainly help to counterbalance the weight, but even so there must have been the tendency for a man to topple over backwards, especially when leaning back after a meal, during which the flagon might have passed freely. In the later years of the seventeenth century the heaviness of the chair was no longer an argument, for the chairs had become incomparably lighter and the height of the back had increased !
However, there it was, and in returning to the Elizabethan chair in Fig. 18 we find in it a detail showing that the possibility of an accident had occurred to its maker, in that the lower ends of the back legs are made extra thick at the back to help to prevent the chair from tilting backwards. It was probably the germ of the idea which resulted later in the legs being splayed outwards, though, as we say, it took a long time for it to develop.
Use of Inlay.—The ornamentation of the back brings to notice a form of decoration not yet mentioned, which came into great popularity during the second half of the sixteenth century, that of inlay. This was carried out entirely in the solid. That is, the background was carved out to receive the shaped inlays. All kinds of native woods were used, apple, pear, holly, cherry, and bog oak, and the design, as in the present example, was usually a conventional treatment of naturalesque motifs. Occasionally geometrical designs were used. The solid method should be noted in particular, because later on an entirely different system was evolved.
The shaped arms, terminating with semi-scrolled fronts, are of the kind invariably used in Elizabethan chairs, and it may be noted that chairs without arms are exceptional in the period. It is just another example of how ideas will cling on. Possibly it was felt that the arms gave a certain dignity to the person using the chair, for these were still reserved for the more important people, though they were becoming more plentiful.

TUDOR GOTHIC PLANKED HUTCH.    FIG. 28. FRAMED-UP TUDOR GOTHIC HUTCH.
Early 16th century.    First half 16th century.
Just as there were two systems of construction in the chest, so the early form of cupboard or hutch was made either by single
planks nailed or pegged together as in the left-hand example, or by a much improved method in which there was a framework with
panels fitting in grooves as in the hutch to the right.

19TH CENTURY GERMANY EMPIRE FURNITURE

ROYAL INFLUENCES
It was the Bonapartes themselves who really made Empire furniture fashionable in Germany. The Emperor’s brother, Jerome Bonaparte, became King of Westphalia in 1810, and he furnished the Schloss Wilhelmshohe with Empire-style pieces. These included pieces ordered from Georges Jacob-Desmalter (see p.201), and an imposing desk which was decorated with marble reliefs designed by
Friedrich Wichmann. In 1806, Napoleon had a suite of Empire furniture made for his Resident at Wurzburg, Franconia. These pieces were inspired by the work of French architects Percier and Fontaine, whose work Napoleon favoured. Their ISO] pattern book, Recueil de decorations interieurs comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a l`ameublement, was well received and highly influential in Germany, inspiring local craftsmen to produce their own publications.
WHEN NAPOLEON BONAPARTE became
ruler of Germany in 1806 he brought the Empire style to the region. Germany and Austria retained
close stylistic links with France, as many German
craftsmen trained and worked in Paris, and became familiar with the Empire style. The grand, Classical motifs
used in Empire style furniture, including eagles, mythical creatures, laurel
Gift bronze embellishes the interior fittings.
VIENNESE SECRETAIRE
This exquisite secretaire is made of fruitwood and mahogany. It has a lyre-shaped case which is decorated with partial inlay and gilding. The case has a single arched pediment, flanked on either side by gilded Classical figures. A rectangular, fall-front writing surface opens to reveal a fitted interior with an
arrangement of drawers and arched compartments, luxuriously decorated with gilt bronze. The lower section of the secretaire consists of two graduated drawers which are decorated to give the appearance of the strings of a lyre. The whole piece is raised on a rectangular plinth which is supported on carved paw feet. c.1807.
Fall-front writing surface
The body of the desk is modelled on a lyre.
The applied bronze decoration includes gilded stars and lion’s heads.
A rectangular plinth supports the piece.
Carved paw feet
VIENNESE GUERIDON
This mahogany-veneered and partially carved gueridon has an overhanging table top with a gilt-edged round frieze below. The three tapering legs are topped by lions’ heads and terminate in a tripartite base with paw feet. c.1810
BEECHWOOD CHAIR
This chair has a scrolled back and rose-coloured upholstery on both the back and seat. The chair has tapering front legs and cabriole back legs. The design is attributed to Leo von Klenze and the chair is thought to have come from the Resident in Munich. c.1818.
GERMAN INTERPRETATIONS German furniture was often larger and grander than its French Empire equivalents. Locally-produced pieces tended to have heavy columns and be rigidly symmetrical.
Empire furniture was predominantly a style for the nobility and was soon adopted by the rulers of the monarchies and princedoms that made up the German Confederation after the Vienna Congress in 1815. These rulers showed off their power by building new castles or by lavishly refurbishing existing ones, and the exuberant interiors of the palaces were designed in the Empire style.
Anterooms and throne rooms were furnished with gilded Empire pieces. Gifted court cabinet-makers produced various ensembles with matching sofa tables and console tables based on French designs or adapted from the fashion magazines that were popular at the time. Private rooms were furnished with mahogany pieces ornamented with gilt-bronze mounts. Decorative motifs were influenced by those of ancient Egypt.
Seating furniture was also directly inspired by the designs of the ancient world. The influence of the Greek Klismos chair, for example, can be seen in the chairs designed by Leo von
Klenze, who worked for the Bavarian King Ludwig I in Munich and whose Neoclassical buildings form much of the city of Munich today.
VIENNESE DESIGN
Vienna was a leading centre for the production of furniture. It was here that some of the most inventive designs were developed, including the lyre-secretaire, which often took on unusual shapes. Unlike the designers and craftsmen working in the German
states, Viennese designers favoured the striking contrast of ebonized wood and gilt bronze and created finely cast and chased gilt bronze mounts that equalled the work of French craftsmen.
One of the most gifted Viennese cabinet-makers was Josef Ulrich Danhauser. He ran the first Viennese furniture manufacturers, from 1804 until his death in 1829, and made his name by decorating his furniture with wood paste moulded to look like expensive bronzes.
This table has a rectangular top with rounded corners, which rests above a single frieze drawer. The piece is raised on sharply tapering, square-section legs. c.1810. H:77crn
AUSTRIAN CHERRY WOOD TABLE
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL (1781-1841)
THE MOST INFLUENTIAL GERMAN MASTER-BUILDER OF THE EARLY 19th CENTURY,
SCHINKEI_ WAS ALSO A CITY PLANNER AND ARTIST, AND A FAMOUS FURNITURE DESIGNER.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was born near Berlin, and originally trained as an architect as one of the first students at the new Berlin Bouakademie. He studied under the architect Friedrich Gilly, whose plans for a monument to Frederick the Great of Prussia greatly inspired the young Schinkel.
He travelled to France and Italy, and was influenced by the Classical-style architecture and furnishings he saw. His theory was that new designs should draw on the ancient world for inspiration, rather than slavishly recreate it. On his return to Germany, he worked for the Prussian state, including working as a
stage designer for the National Theatre.
One of Schinkels earliest works was a bed with bedside table, designed for Queen Louise for the Charlottenburg castle in Berlin. His use of light-coloured veneers anticipated the Biedermeier style (see pp.216-17). He was not
afraid to experiment with shape and created pieces designed for specific places within a room. Typical Schinkel designs are for architectural secretaires and comfortable armchairs. His publication Vorbilder fur Fabrihanten and Handwerker (Role Models for Makers and Craftsmen) in 1835 had a widespread influence. In later years, Schinkels work drew less on the
Neoclassical style, and more on the designs of the Renaissance.
Schinkel armchair This generously upholstered armchair has a curvaceous frame with a high backrest and is decorated with motifs from the ancient world.
Schinkel in Naples This oil painting, by Franz Louis Catel, shows Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Naples in 1824 during his second Italian journey. 1824
This rectilinear commode is made from mahogany veneered with maple. It has canted corners and three drawers with ebony stringing. The commode is supported on square, tapering legs. Early 19th century.

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Settles and sofas after 1840
The revival of interest in historical styles from the mid-19th century resulted in a multiplicity of designs for all types of furniture, including sofas, which were often made as part of the new salon or parlour suites. A major technical development during this period was use of the coil spring, patented in 1828, which resulted in sturdier, bulkier, and squatter designs that sacrificed form to comfort. These deeply upholstered seats, with their button backs, culminated in the Chesterfield, which was the first fully upholstered sofa.

Seat furniture
The period c. 1860 to (.1880 was in many ways the golden age of upholstery. Stuffing had been growing steadily thicker from the 1840s, and buttons were introduced to prevent the thread holding the stuffing
in place from pulling the covering material. Extra fabric was necessary to create the familiar diamond pattern of buttons or threads characteristic of the deep, luxurious upholstery, with its air of prosperity and comfort, so admired by the Victorian middle classes. The development of the coil spring made increased demands on buttoning. Whereas sofas had previously been stuffed with layers of wadding and horsehair, coiled metal springs were now used. The springs were supported by a layer of hessian webbing, covered with more webbing, which in turn was covered with horsehair stuffing and padding. As a result, Victorian sofas were much more comfortable than early 19th-century examples, but they were also much bulkier; many sofas had button backs to emphasize the new upholstered look. The luxurious effect was emphasized by the use of velvet and other elaborate fabrics. Sofas with their original worn upholstery arc more collectable today than those with high-quality restoration using an inappropriate fabric.
French sofas were generally lighter in design than British examples, since French craftsmen and manufacturers employed such revival styles as Rococo and Louis XVI, making use of giltwood and lighter upholstery fabrics. In the USA, parlour suites on a grand scale were produced by such leading makers as John Henry Belter (1804-63) of New York, who in the 1850s created laminated and moulded rosewood sofas with deep pierced carving. Renaissance Revival suites, with square-backed sofas, were also popular, while the fashion in Europe and the USA for “Turkish” corners gave rise to over-stuffed upholstered sofas with elaborate fringing.
Edwardian sofas of the first two decades of the 20th century borrowed heavily from Neo-classical styles –especially the designs of Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) – and from Regency styles, but managed to avoid the excesses of Victorian interpretations. Suites of chairs with matching sofas were produced; these were generally made from mahogany, or occasionally from walnut or satinwood. Sofas and chairs often had caned backs and sides, with silk or damask upholstery.

•    CHALSES-LONGUES these are not particularly commercial as they can be large and not very comfortable to sit on; examples with good shapes are more popular, as are those that are more heavily carved
•    GILDING good-quality regilding is quite acceptable if well executed– the highlights should be burnished, and the quality of the carving evident; beware of spray gilding – this will have a flat, matt appearance, with a very even coverage
•    RE-UPHOLSTERY the condition of the upholstery should be carefully examined, as seating can be very expensive to re-upholster; furniture with taut webbing is
preferable to that with springing, which tends to give an overstuffed look
•    COLLECTING many sofas and settees were originally part of parlour or salon suites, which are now rarely found complete; three-seater examples are generally more commercial than two-seater

Seat furniture
Until the 17th century most seating was provided by the stool; box-settles were also common in wealthier households. Side chairs and armchairs were introduced in the 16th century and the settee in the mid-17th century; this evolved over the next 200 years into the fully upholstered sofa. The demand for comfortable seating increased throughout this period, with upholstery gradually
eclipsing wood carving and decoration, especially after the introduction of the coiled spring in the 1820s. Over the centuries seating has been profoundly influenced by a succession of styles and forms, from the extravagant Baroque to the austere Neoclassical, all of which have been revived by later generations of craftsmen. The interest in historical design continues to this day.
Stools
The stool has been in use for thousands of years, and was and is common in one form or another to all civilizations. Its often simple construction and its portability have ensured its lasting popularity. Until the 17th century, seat furniture with backs and arms was scarce, and the chair was reserved for the head of the household; most seating was provided by the stool.
17TH-CENTURY JOINED STOOLS
Inventories from the 17th century show that stools existed in large numbers and were reserved for members of the household who had sufficient status to sit at formal occasions. This hierarchy persisted in court circles well into the 18th century. Most stools found today were made from the 17th century onwards. As with all types of furniture, examples of stools before 1600 are rare and those that come onto the market can be valuable. The simple, pegged, oak stool with carved decoration is probably the most common type. Called a joined or joint stool, it was made by a joiner, with mortise-and-tenon joints secured by pegs. Although regional variations exist, the design was basically the same throughout Europe. Generally only those pieces that were well made in good-quality wood have survived, and many stools intended for everyday use have long since disappeared.
Joined stools could be extended in length to become benches and were occasionally made with a small drawer underneath the seat. Even at this early date they were often made in sets, a practice that was to become widespread in later centuries. Originally the seat would probably have been softened with a squab cushion but during the 17th century padding became an integral part of the stool as the demand for comfort increased.

LATER STOOLS Because stools were perennially popular they tended to keep up with fashion trends. In the late 18th century British stools were made after designs in The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide ( 1788-94) by George Hepplewhite (d.1786) and French stools after designs by Pierre Fontaine (c.1762-1853) and Charles Percier (1764-1838), as well as those in Receuil de decorations interieures (1801-12). Shapes diversified as the interest in historical styles and forms, whether real or imaginary, took hold. For example, the X-frame form, first made in ancient Egypt and common in Europe during the Renaissance, was revived in Europe and North America during the early 19th century.
The 19th century saw an increased use of mechanization, which enabled carving to become extremely elaborate, and stools were made in a variety of bizarre forms with carved and moulded decoration. From the third quarter of the 19th century a new type of upholstered seating, the pouffe, was introduced. The upholsterer played an increasingly prominent role in furniture-making as comfort became an ever more important criterion.

•   COPIES OF JOINED STOOLS during the 1920s and 1930s
many copies were made of the joined stool; signs of a genuine example include wear in the right places, such as the stretchers; irregular pegs that stand proud due to shrinkage and are visible on both the inside and outside of the frame; “dry” wood underneath the seat
•   GEORGIAN STOOLS look at the colour of the wood under the seat rail (the drop-in seat should lift out) – this should be “dry” and unstained; exercise caution with small stools, which are popular with collectors – fakers may have used the front pair of legs from two damaged chairs and fixed them into a seat rail; check for odd proportions and for tops of legs hidden by the seat rail