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By the beginning of the 18th century earrings had become an essential form The girandole of adornment.
The girandole, first seen around the middle of the 17th century, remained the most popular type of earring. As we have seen, it consisted of a surmount, usually a bow motif, with three pear-shaped drops, the larger one at the centre, suspended from a hook. The hook allowed the drops to be detached, so that the surmount could be worn on its own when occasion required it.
There are several explanations for the popularity of the girandole. The first has to do with fashion in clothes and hair. During the 18th century hair was worn gathered up on the head away from the face, leaving the ears uncovered; and the low cut of dresses for formal occasions left the area around the neck and ears perfectly suited for adornment with earrings. Secondly, earrings and particularly girandoles exploited the qualities of faceted stones, especially diamonds, which had become plentiful after their discovery in Brazil in 1723; before that the supply had been limited to the mines of Golconda in India. Also significant was the improvement in techniques for cutting diamonds: around 1700 it is thought that the Venetian Vincenzo Peruzzi devised the brilliant-cut, a cut that enhanced the optical properties of diamonds, enabling the stone to reflect light and sparkle at its best. The new brilliant-cut diamonds were particularly successful when mounted on girandole earrings with the stones hanging freely on both sides of the face and catching the light. Thirdly, improved domestic candles meant that more social occasions could be held at night, and in these circumstances sparkling diamond-set jewels and especially girandoles were particularly effective. Until the mid-18th century, jewellery was set solely with diamonds. For formal evening occasions, diamond girandole earrings were all the rage, while during the day girandoles set with more sober semiprecious stones such as garnets, cornelians, pearls, aventurine glass and pastes were preferred. For the first time in the history of jewellery a differentiation was made between day-time and night-time jewels, a distinction which remains to this day.
The girandole remained the favoured type of earring throughout the 18th century and in general terms its basic elements — the bow surmount and drops, the emphasis on width rather than length and the practice of wearing matching bodice ornaments called sevignes — are features which had been common since the 17th century. There are, however, certain small differences. The early 18th-century girandole may be distinguished from its 17th-century counterpart mainly by its emphasis on the faceted stones rather than on the setting and enamel-work; in the 17th century the setting was decorated at the front and back with polychrome enamels and engravings, but towards the end of that century enamel-work and engraving were confined to the back and disappeared completely at the beginning of the 18th.
Elements remaining from the 17th century include the rather stiff design with the clearly defined bow and drops as separate units, and the pronounced horizontal de-Engraved design of the ‘Principes de Girandoles’ by L. Van der Cruycen, 1770, showing the proportions of a girandole earring.
Engraved designs for three pearl girandole earrings by L. Van der Cruycen, 177o. The central motifs are flower sprays.
velopment, stressing width rather than length. Such features are clearly visible in the designs engraved by Quien dated 1710 and published posthumously in London in 1762, especially the stiffness of the design, the drops treated as separate elements, the horizontality and the interest in the faceted stone.
Girandoles were popular throughout Europe at the beginning of the i 8th century, but there are small differences which betray their country of origin. In France they were set entirely with diamonds and were characterized by a sense of movement and sculptural quality. In Spain they were sturdier and set typically with a combination of emeralds and diamonds, a fact explained by the relatively easy supply of emeralds from mines in Colombia, which belonged to Spain. Portuguese girandoles were characterized by simple and flat lines and were usually set with topazes and chrysoberyls from Brazil, then a Portuguese colony. In the Adriatic regions and especially Southern Italy girandoles were given bold outlines and were frequently set with seed pearls as opposed to gemstones.
Girandoles of the second half of the 18th century show some slight changes. In France, particularly, they were no longer set only with diamonds but with a combination of diamonds and coloured gemstones such as rubies. Secondly, they gradually develop a more vertical outline with a more elongated central drop, noticeable in the Italian designs of circa 177o and exemplified by the proportions set out in the Principes de Giraindoles designed and engraved by Van der Cruycen in 1770. And thirdly, the basic bow surmount is frequently replaced by a more complex arrangement, for example the combination of ribbon bow and flower spray motif seen in the ruby and diamond girandoles and in Pouget’s designs for girandoles, dated 1762. One of his pages, for instance, shows six different designs for girandoles. The four set with pearls display intricate motifs in the centre other than bows: a floral motif, two hearts, paired doves and a trophy of love with two hearts and arrows. The characteristic intricacy of the central element is evident also in the emerald and diamond examples from Spain; the centre in the form of a flowerhead cluster is set with a large emerald in a border of rose diamonds framed by diamond-set foliate spray motifs. The other typical feature of late i 8th-century girandoles is the working together of the surmount and drops into much more of an ensemble, compared to the early girandoles where they are treated as separate units.
Most girandoles were quite large, and weight was an important aspect which should not be overlooked. It depended on two features, the size of the earring and the setting of the stones. Gemstones were commonly mounted in closed settings with collets closed at the back, which were lined with coloured foils to enhance the colour of the stones and improve the evenness of colour; in the case of diamonds, foils gave a subtle hue to the stones. Gold was used to set coloured stones while silver was normally used to set diamonds, as it suited their whiteness. So much metal was used in the setting that the earrings were inevitably very heavy, something which is stressed by the designer and engraver Augustin Duflos in the ‘Discours Preliminere’ to his
P 56 Recueil des Dessins, published in 1744. The need to alleviate the weight of girandole earrings led to the introduction of a special fitting, consisting of penannular wire hinged on one side to be inserted from back to front into the pierced earlobe. An additional loop soldered off-centre at the top held a ribbon secured to the hair, taking some of the weight off the ears. The Spanish emerald and diamond girandoles illustrated here are approximately 39 grams; today an average of about 22 grams per earring is reckoned to be as heavy as a woman can comfortably wear.
Tolerance of heavy earrings depends, of course, on how long they are worn, how much movement is involved and how the weight is distributed. When the weight of a long earring is concentrated in a small area, it will feel much heavier than when the
P 57 same weight is spread over a larger surface, as in the case of a disc. Duflos mentions this problem of weight. ‘Ladies’, he says, ‘are the principal objects of the Jeweller’s Art, who mainly devotes his work to them. If this work, by chance, falls under their hands, it might perhaps bring them back to noble and simple taste, better suited in differentiating them and in showing their natural graces than the glittering display that has been favoured for some time. Then they will reduce, by their own accord, the enormous size of Flowers and Girandole Earrings, which tires the ears and they will prefer beautiful diamonds, although smaller in size, to a disorderly cluster of small stones which add up to a lot of weight and are ill suited.’
The pendeloque
Another type of earring which became popular in the second half of the i 8th century,
P. 52, 53 although it was well established fifty years earlier, was the pendeloque. Its design is
characterized by a marquise-shaped surmount supporting a central ribbon bow motif
and an elongated drop of a design similar to the surmount, frequently decorated with
P. 57 a swing centre. Variations include one model which has a more elaborate central sec-
tion with a combination of bow and floral spray motifs, and pear-shaped drops. The
pendeloque seems to have come into fashion because its elongated outline counter-balanced the extreme height of hairstyles around the 1770s. This style reached its peak among the upper classes in 1778. A pad made of wool, hemp and wire was placed on the head and either natural or horse hair with pomade and powder was stretched over. They must have been extremely uncomfortable and unhygienic, since they were often kept in place for weeks at a time, becoming breeding grounds for lice and fleas; furthermore, they were highly impractical, obstructing one’s view and making it difficult to fit into a coach. Caricaturists showed servants employed to hold up the weight of the hair, or attending to their mistress’s hair from ladders, and ladies travelling in carriages with the roof opened up for the high coiffures to stick out. But comfort was not the main concern of the fashionable lady; she delighted in the way the sweeping high line of her hair was perfectly counterbalanced by the elongated drops of her pendeloque earrings.
Most of the pendeloques were set with diamonds but few have survived, since the settings were melted down and the stones reset. The great majority of extant examples are set with colourless pastes or crystals such as white topazes and rock crystal imitating diamonds. The interest in imitation diamonds is typical of the 18th century; and paste jewellery of this period can be considered the forerunner of modern luxury costume jewellery. Another favourite type of pendeloque besides those set with dia-P 49 monds or pastes is the one with a pear-shaped pearl drop usually set as a swing centre in a diamond-set frame. In design books one frequently finds variations of girandoles
P 57 and pendeloques illustrated together. In those of Quien (dated 1710) and Saint (dated 1759), there are engravings of three variations of girandoles and six slightly differing pendeloques all on the same page. Similarly, in the designs of Maria, active 1751-70, eight variations of girandoles and three pendeloques are depicted.
Pendeloques were set in much the same way as girandoles with the stones mounted in closed collets, but they were lighter, having a single drop from the bow surmount instead of three. This explains why one frequently finds a different fitting; instead of the hook with additional loop to alleviate the weight, there is a plain long S-shaped wire hook soldered to the surmount of the earrings. This is clearly depicted in some coloured designs of pendeloques (1760-70) by an anonymous Italian jeweller, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
The ‘two-stone’ earring
Another popular mid to late 18th-century earring is the type known as the ‘two-stone’ earring. This consists of two large oval faceted gemstones, the larger one on top, with the plane joining the two embellished with various decorative motifs. The simplest version of this decoration comprises just two small lozenge-shaped stones filling in the gaps at the sides where the two larger stones meet; the more elaborate type, as seen in Duflos’ engraved designs of 1744, presents lateral floral and foliate spray motifs. This type of earring was suited for the display of large and important stones, especially diamonds, but hardly any examples have survived, because such large and important stones tend inevitably to be reset in more up-to-date settings. The extant examples mostly contain pastes and garnets and have survived because there was no advantage in melting them down and resetting the gemstones. Nevertheless even the low value ‘two-stone’ earrings are very attractive: a pair set with translucent blue opaline paste may be seen in the Museum of London; it is also interesting to note how sometimes the simple ‘two-stone’ motif is repeated to form a necklace usually worn en suite with the earrings.
From the 18th century onwards, girandoles and pendoloques continued in favour, though modified as one could expect to meet changing tastes. One finds a variation of the girandole in the I 83os and again in the late 1920s, while the pendeloque enjoyed particular favour in the 18 2os and 18 8os.
A lasting tradition
In certain peripheral areas, however, fashion evolves more slowly than in courtly and
international circles, and the form of the girandole and the pendeloque has remained
p. 63 virtually unchanged from the 18th century to modern times. This can clearly be seen
in provincial jewellery of the Iberian peninsula where one finds a recurring girandole
design: a central stylized bow motif with three pear-shaped drops, pierced in gold
Engraved designs by J. D. Saint, for three girandoles and two pendeloque earrings, 1759.
Two types of earring dominate the i 8th century: the pendeloque and the ,irandole. pendeloque earrings had been ;n favour since the early part of the century, but their greatest popularity came in the 177os. Their basic design consisted of a circular or oval surmount supporting an elongated drop which counterbalanced the excessively high hairstyles of that time. The pair shown here represent one of the commonest of ,he many variants. A diamond and pearl cluster supports a diamond ribbon bow motif suspended with a pear-shaped diamond drop with a pearl swing centre.
decorated with small rose diamonds. Dating these earrings can be problematic. Earlier examples have engraved scrolling on the back, while later ones are stamped out from a die and are coarser in appearance. They are frequently accompanied by a bodice ornament of ribbon bow known as a ‘lava’ which derives from the traditional s6vign6. These Iberian examples are not particularly heavy, having pierced mounts and being set with fewer stones; this explains the fitting which, unlike the conventional i 8th-century girandole, consists of a gold hinged hook which is inserted into the ear from back to front without any additional supporting device.
Other pendeloques follow closely the traditional i 8th-century prototypes. Some have a ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop, others a much more elongated pendant, as long as 8 cms. A typical Portuguese earring derived from the pendeloque is the Brincos a Rainha’, ‘Queen’s earring’. It has a bow surmount and a swing centre, but the drop is usually wider and stones are replaced by faceted gold bead motifs. All our examples are made from a sheet of high carat gold (usually 20 carat) from which the design has been cut out by means of a saw and file, producing a lace-like effect. Inlays were skilfully chiselled by hand and the collets that were placed round the stones, usually rose diamonds, were made separately and embellished by the burin. Later examples in the 19th century were frequently cast in the chosen shape and then finished with the chisel and burin.
In another area of the Iberian peninsula centred around Catalonia, during the late i 8th century, the girandole was the inspiration for the design of the extremely popular ‘Catalan earring’, which remained in vogue virtually unmodified up to the end of the 19th century. Unlike the Portuguese examples, Catalan earrings are extremely long and resemble later 8th-century Spanish girandoles. They are mounted with an abundance of gemstones in closed settings and chased mounts. The stones are never diamonds but semiprecious stones such as hessonite garnets and amethysts. The central ribbon bow motif is greatly stylized, the emphasis being on length rather than width, and all the elements are integrated into the overall design. Some examples have a very large central drop flanked by two smaller ones, thus retaining the structure of the girandole, while others have only a single large drop and are closer in conception to the pendeloque. The long popularity of this type of earring in Catalonia is demonstrated by numerous surviving examples and by its frequent appearance even in i 9th-century portraits, e.g. , the Flower Woman from Valencia by Joaquim Argasot y Juan. The sitter is wearing typical Catalan earrings mounted in gold with dark green gemstones, the usual stylized ribbon bow surmount suspending three drops-, they are so long that they nearly rest on the shawl draped over the woman’s shoulders. Indeed, these Catalan earrings could measure up to 14 cms and were often so heavy that they had to be supported by an additional hook placed over the ear. Sidney Churchill, in an article on ‘Peasant Jewellery’ published in The Studio, mentions the practice of alleviating the weight of a heavy earring by means of a ribbon tied round the ear, which he saw in Nicosia as late as 19 12.

French Art Nouveau Furniture: DISPLAY CASE, TWO-TIER TABLE, TABLE LAMPS, ROSEWOOD AND WALNUT VITRINE.

FRANCE: THE NANCY SCHOOL
MANY OF THE FINEST WORKS of French
Art Nouveau were created at the Alliance Provincale des Industries d’Art, or Ecole de Nancy, in the province of Lorraine. It was founded in 1901 by the innovative furniture and glass designer Emile Galle, and was based on the example set by the English Arts and Crafts guilds. A design school and workshop that was profoundly influenced by the Symbolist movement in art and literature, the goal of the enterprise was to modernize technical training in both the decorative and applied arts.
The natural world inspired and informed the artists and craftsmen
who gathered around the brilliant Galle at the Ecole de Nancy, and the school gave a coherent identity to the diverse craftsmen working there.
Among those who ran the Nancy school with Galle were some of the finest craftsmen and designers of the day, including Louis Majorelle, Eugene Vallin, Victor Prouve, and the Daum brothers, Auguste and Antonin.
BOTANICAL INSPIRATION
In addition to history of art and Symbolist poetry and literature, Galle’s rich influences included the study of local flora and fauna — cow parsley, thistles, insects, and so on — which
was to furnish him with creative inspiration for shapes as well as decoration. His romantic vision of nature, a delight in plants, animals, and other living creatures, and a passionate faith in the mystery of creation lay at the heart of his most inspired designs.
FURNITURE STYLES
Galle’s emotional connection with the vitality of nature and his love of symbolism resulted in highly original, imaginative furniture that seemed to breathe with life.
Tables and cabinets were made
from richly coloured or exotic woods,
including rosewood, maple, walnut, or fruitwoods such as apple or pear. The pieces stood on carved supports in the shape of dragonfly wings, or boasted cornices featuring carved
creatures such as snails, moths, and bats. Decorative bronze mounts resembled insects, and fruitwood inlays in extravagant compositions depicted natural motifs, including flower blossoms, leaves, fruit, cars of corn, snails, and butterflies.

Many of Galles pieces were unique, and were signed and frequently engraved with verses by Victor Hugo, Paul Verlaine, or Charles Baudelaire.
LOUIS MAJORELLE
The other great furniture designer working at Nancy – Louis Majorelle –turned his back on the Louis XV taste, which had been the staple of many established workshops, and created some of the finest pieces of Art
Giltwood Aubepine table by Louis Majorelle This occasional table has a circular marble top above a moulded gilt frieze. The tapering moulded legs are decorated with foliate carving.
Nouveau furniture. Although his desks, tables, chairs, and bedroom suites lack the symbolic poetry found in the works of Galle, his finely crafted furniture is beautiful in its own right.
Majorelle established several workshops so that he could increase his output. He was a trained cabinetmaker, and although much of his furniture incorporated some machine-made parts, the quality was superb. Majorelle’s furniture was usually made
of dark hardwoods such as mahogany and rosewood, with fluid outlines and massive, sculptural gilt-bronze mounts shaped as orchids or water lilies,
alongside delicately carved, inlaid, or marquetry decoration in fruitwoods, pewter, or mother-of-pearl. He also collaborated with the Daum brothers, who were famous for their glassware, to produce a wide variety of decorative lamps with glass shades and elegant bronze or iron mounts.

ROSEWOOD AND WALNUT VITRINE
This rosewood and walnut vitrine by Emile Gallo is inspired by organic motifs. The upper section has glazed doors with carved foliage surrounds extending to a central support to form a heart motif. The back is decorated with fruitwood leaf-form marquetry. 1900.
ARMCHAIRS
These mahogany chairs by Louis Majorelle have rectangular padded splats, stuff-over arms on unusual, sweeping, reverse-curved supports, and stuff-over seats on moulded legs. This is a graceful variation on the traditional chair style with gently curving lines. c.1900.
This is an unusual pair of glass and bronze lamps made in Nancy by Daum Freres and Louis Majorelle. The tapering, gilded, bronze shaft has a flower motif in high relief and three raised supports for the domed, mushroom-shaped shades. The lamp shades are made of clear flashed glass with powder inclusions in rose, greenish-yellow, and dark violet. They are signed “Daum Nancy” and have a Cross of Lorraine on the rim of the shade. c. 1904.
TABLE LAMPS

Made rom mahogany and makasar, this display case by Louis Majorelle rests on curved diagonal legs. The doors have distinctive blossom ornaments. c.1920.
This rosewood occasional table by Emile GaIle has three out-splayed supports and scroll legs with carved hoof feet. The table is decorated with floral marquetry. c.1900.
This sumptuous, blonde mahogany, goose-design cabinet by Louis Majorelle is decorated with marquetry, pierced wood, and exotic timbers. The piece has pierced side panels, a frieze drawer with bronze goose-head drawer
DISPLAY CASE
NEST OF TABLES
These Emile Galle tables Aux Magnolias are made of fruit- and rootwoods and decorated with magnolia and butterfly design inlays, and carved branch patterns on the legs of the largest tables. c.1900.
TWO-TIER TABLE
ARMCHAIRS
This pair of Marrons d’Inde armchairs by Louis Majorelle have splats with exotic wood marquetry, bent and curved arms, tapering legs, and stuff-over upholstered seats. 1905-10.
Pierced side panels
are decorated
with repeated scrolling motifs.
Bronze drawer pulls are in the shape of goose heads.
The goose motif is continued on the front doors.
GOOSE DESIGN CABINET
pulls, and cupboards inlaid witn exotic wood showing a gaggle of geese. A superb designer and highly skilled technician, Majorelle created flamboyantly luxurious pieces of unrivalled
quality. c.1900.

American Art Deco Furniture: MAPLE DESK, CHINA CABINET, PAINTED SCREEN, COMMODE, ILLUMINATED BAR.

ALTHOUGH THE UNITED STATES did not
participate in the 1925 Paris Exhibition, the Exhibition was still hugely influential there. Many American designers, including Eugene Schoen, visited it, and it was covered by American newspapers and magazines. Also, the following year, a tour of more than 400 objects that had been displayed in Paris was organized by Charles Richards, director of the American Association of Museums. He had been impressed by the Exhibition and hoped to initiate
“a parallel movement” in the United States by mounting the tour.
New York department stores, such as Lord & Taylor and R.H. Macy Company, also helped to publicize the Art Deco style by putting on exhibitions in the late 1920s of Art Deco furniture by leading Parisian designers. Eugene Schoen emulated his French contemporaries by creating pieces in rare and exotic woods, incorporating marquetry and inlays, coloured lacquers, and subtle carvings. His forms were architectural, with
their clean lines and restrained, stylized decoration, and his cabinetmaking was of the highest quality.
A NEW DIRECTION
A parallel Art Deco movement did blossom in the United States, but it developed along different lines to those of Europe. A handful of innovative designers, such as Paul Frankl, K.E.M. Weber, and Josef Urban, who had been born in Europe, combined the French Art Deco style with those of the Bauhaus (see p.386) and the Wiener
Werkstatte in their designs. Instead of producing expensive luxury pieces, they created well-crafted, functional pieces that could be mass produced.
Donald Deskey, the principal interior designer for New York City’s Radio City Music Hall, created dramatic, highly charged furniture. It combined the luxurious elements of French Art Deco with the more functional and rectilinear features of the Bauhaus style, which made full use of the latest technology. Deskey used the rare woods, lacquer, and glass loved by French designers but combined them with modern materials, such as aluminium and Bakelite, to embellish his opulent furniture designs.
American designers welcomed the machine age with open arms. They decorated their furniture with machine motifs, such as interlocking cogs and wheels. They celebrated speed and dynamism with the increasingly streamlined look of their furniture inspired by automobiles, ocean liners, and locomotives, and motifs based on dramatic bolts of lightning. They made bold use of Cubist-inspired geometric shapes and jazzy abstract patterns, arid iucludcd iconic American molds based
on the modern city and way of life, such as the skyscraper.
The industrial designer K.E.M. Weber established a Californian version of Art Deco. His distinctive furniture was mostly made from metal and glass and often had skyscraper-like features. Weber created sleek, functional furniture for private commissions as well as designs intended for mass production, using new materials such as chromed metal, sprung steel, and laminated wood. He also designed lavish Art Deco furniture for dazzling Hollywood film sets, which were largely responsible for transmitting the American Art Deco style to the world.

Eugene Schoen designed this maple desk for Schieg Hungate and Kotzian. The heavy rectangular desktop, with moulded sides, sits on block feet. The supporting table underneath, which has a semi-circular cut-out, carries the desktop section. c.1935
Signed and dated Robert W Charter
1928.
CHINA CABINET
This simple, rectilinear cabinet was designed by Paul Frankl. The limed, slate grey base and case of the lower section provide a striking contrast to the three ivory doors with semi-circular brass pulls. On top of this is is an unadorned china cabinet with a limed ivory finish. The three shelves of the cabinet are enclosed by two sliding glass doors.
MAPLE DESK
PAINTED SCREEN
This dramatic, three-panelled wooden screen by Robert Winthrop Chanter features two zebras locked in combat, painted in black and tan on an ivory background. The back of the screen is decorated with diagonal stripes in black with silver foil, in imitation of a zebra’s stripes.
The screen is signed and dated in the lower right corner. Chanter’s screens were greatly admired, and this example was commissioned by the Broadway composer Kay Swift and her husband. Screens were popular during the Art Deco period and this particular piece is of the utmost luxury, as emphasized by the use of silver foil. 1928.

PAINTED CHAIR
This William L. Price painted chair has moulded legs and an intricately carved backrest. It was designed for the dining room at Traymore Hotel, New Jersey, which was demolished in 1972.
STEEL STOOL
One of a set of four patinated steel stools, this stool has an upholstered, padded seat and a pierced apron cast with scrolling foliage. The stool has turned supports, linked by stretchers, with a maker’s label.
COMMODE
Designed by John Widdicomb for a department store, this commode has a geometrically inlaid top above a single long drawer, with stylized inlay. The twin inlaid and figured panel doors enclose three drawers. H 111.75cm (44in). FRE
ILLUMINATED BAR
Made from black lacquer with an exotic wood veneer, this illuminated bar has a central cabinet with fluted doors and a mirrored interior.
It was in 1925 that Frankl really came into his own as a furniture designer with his renowned range of custom-made furniture inspired by the New York skyline and the skyscrapers that soared above his New York gallery. Typical Frankl “skyscraper” designs, which frequently evoke the pure lines found in the work of the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian, include tall, stepped chests of drawers, cabinets, and bookcases boasting an architectonic, rectilinear form. They were made from oak or California redwood and were sometimes
“Skyscraper” chest This rare Paul Frankl chest is asymmetrical, with long and short drawers, a single cabinet, a pull-out enamelled shelf in red and black, and geometrically shaped brass pulls.

Origins & Development of Art Deco.
L’Exposition International des Arts Dedcoratifs et In - dustriels Modernes was held in Paris, France, from April to October in 1925. This international exhibit was arranged for the purpose of showing the work of current artists, craftsmen and designers who attempted to project a view of contemporary and future trends in artistic decoration. The event had been planned much earlier, but the onset and aftermath of World War I caused the Exposition to be postponed until 1925. As the title implied, the purpose of the Exposition was to demonstrate that elements of art and industrial techniques could be combined as applied art to make both utilitarian and attractive products. These were desirable to accommodate the changing life styles occurring because of the industrial progress of the 20th century.
Countries which participated at the Expostion set up pavilions to house the respective displays of their selected artisans. In addition to France, Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, England, Greece, Holland, Italy, Japan, Monaco, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden and Turkey were represented. Two major countries did not participate. Germany was not invited because of the strained relations resulting from the war. The United States did not accept the invitation because according to “Herbert Hoover … there was no modern art in the United States” (Arwas, p. 14). For a full description of the 1925 Exposition, see the book by Frank Scarlett and Marjorie Townley (Arts Ddcoratifs 1925, London: St. Martins Press, 1975).
The 1925 Exposition captured the current world of design and had a profound influence on design over the succeeding years. The styles and designs of the work shown at the Exposition were not identical. As years passed, the styles displayed in 1925 were emulated, but they were not copied slavishly or duplicated precisely. In fact, varied interpretations and other innovative designs emerged during the following years. The style highlighted in 1925 served as the basis for developing the “modern” look of the decorative arts over the next generation.
Because of assorted opinions about Art Deco, its history is controversial. Numerous individuals and groups, various schools of design, many social and world events, and several philosophical ideas or “isms” are considered instrumental in the development of Art Deco. A wealth of material has been written on these various aspects of the subject. It is not my purpose to present a detailed historical survey. Rather, readers are encouraged to consult the selected entries in the Bibliography for a thorough review of Art Deco’s complex background.
Rarely does a consensus exist about the precise dates of artistic or historical periods. Prior developments are important and will inevitably lead to some point that later is identified as the beginning of the period. The literature which describes the development of the Art Deco style has several different views about when the era began and ended and about where and why it originated. There is even disagreement about what Art Deco actually is.
Art Deco is sometimes seen as a reaction against Art Nouveau, the immediately preceding period of decorative design (1890’s-1910. Art Nouveau is a style based on romantic and naturalistic images, dominated by a graceful, curvilinear line. It is highly decorative, having a sensuous, dreamy, more subtle quality than the gaudy ornamentation typically associated with the Victorian period.
Art Deco, in contrast, is often considered as an interpretation of the future based on the use of straight angles and clean lines without superflous decoration. This opinion is contradicted by observers who point out that early Art Deco did not fit that description. It was neither all lines and angles nor were all examples plain and austere. These writers believe Art Deco grew out of Art Nouveau or was a refinement of that earlier style. They emphasize that early pieces often were richly executed with lavish materials and were quite luxurious.
Some authors describe Art Deco as being a “nevi, art” which did not imitate previous designs. Critics of that view believe that the “true” Art Deco was derived from the restrained neo-classical 18th century styles. Another view is that Art Deco borrowed from cultures such as the Egyptian, African and American Indian.
In addition to the origin and characteristics of style. the original audience for Art Deco is debatable. On the one hand, it is seen as intended for the wealthy. Some experts accept only the work of the top designers ant craftsmen as being representative of true Art Deco. Certain individuals who exhibited at the Paris Exposition are usually cited as the most important names associates with the style. Others insist the style was developed primarily for the middle classes. Mass produced ware_ which strived to imitate the “modern” trends of the 1920’s and 1930’s are scorned by some. Such example_ are often lumped under the heading of “kitsch, — a Ge– man term literally defined as “trash,” or the debasement of original works. Today, however, many of those items have become extremely collectible and comprise the major part of many collections.
Another dispute in the literature is that Art Deco :synonymous with France. Deco items of French origi- are considered superior to examples from other countries. France, in fact, is usually considered the birthplace of Art Deco, especially because of the 1925 Exposition. Yet knowledgable writers trace its development through other European centers such as Austria and Germany. :ndeed, the list of countries exhibiting at the 1925 Ex.:position is evidence that craftsmen in many countries were designing their work simultaneously along lines hick now are identified as Art Deco. Thus, it is apparent -hat other countries expressed their own views of modern design. And while the United States did not participate n the 1925 event, that certainly does not mean that modern” design was not developing here as well.
Purists say Art Deco ended in 1925, with the peak of the style culminating in the Paris Exposition. They do not believe that the work which followed was worthy of :he name. Others, less dogmatic, differentiate between “Art Deco” and “Art Moderne. – Art Deco would include design up to 1925, and Art Moderne would describe the style followed after that year and on into the 1930’s. This dear division separates the components of elegant style ollowing Art Nouveau from the purely angular and stark designs brough forth in the late 1920’s.
Other critics maintain that Art Deco includes the en-:ire period of the 1920’s through the 1940’s. Alternative-.y, Art Deco is referred to as the style popular between :%vo World Wars-1918-1940. Other definitions of the era confine the period between the years of 1925, the date of the initial French exhibit, and 1940.
If the general consensus is that 1940 or World War II signifies the end of the main production of Art Deco, :hen World War I is usually considered the most impor:ant event influencing the development of the Art Deco period. Life styles certainly changed during and after the war. Servants left their positions to fight, or in the case of women, work for the war effort. The sons and daughters of the wealthy also became involved in wartime activities. After the war, many former domestics -efused to return “downstairs,” seeking more regular jobs and their own living quarters. Because of the war, both servant class and upper class women began to become more independent. A desire to enjoy life and a relaxation of morals are also often cited as important consequences of the war. A “middle” class began to emerge which demanded a release from the encumbered Victorian way of life steeped in heavy traditions, pious attitudes and elaborate rituals of dressing, entertaining and running households.
Although World War I might be the focal point for recognizing a change in the world’s life styles, other important factors also occurred before and after the war which helped bring about this change. The first 40 years of the 20th century witnessed unsurpassed progress in industry which led to a more convenient way of life in all areas: ‘from horse and buggy to automobile, train and plane; from gas lighting to electricity; from outdoor to indoor plumbing; from hand delivered calling cards to telephone, telegram and radio. This period of rapid change in transportation, communication and manufacturing resulted in a smaller world, as is often quoted, by making distant people and places more accessible. But
it also made the world larger for the average person by making more goods and services available and thereby allowing more individual freedom. It is not surprising that as life became more efficient, especially for the average person, all aspects of style and design were influenced.
In spite of the various views of its origin and development, Art Deco is a recognized age just as its immediate predecessors, the Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. Like those well known categories of collector interests, Art Deco, too, has become firmly established. In 1965, a revival of the 1925 Exposition, Les Annees ‘25, was held in Paris. World attention once again took a look at what had been hailed as “modern” in 1925. The success of this subsequent exhibit brought forth a new “Period” for collectors. “Art Deco,” derived from the lengthy French title of the original Exposition, quickly caught on as an apt descriptive term not only for the style showcased in 1925, but perhaps more importantly also evolved to identify the modernistic designs which were either continued or initiated after 1925 until the 1940’s.
Today, auctions specialize in sales devoted to artifacts from the period. General price guides include Art Deco as a specific entry, listing a variety of examples and current prices fetched at auctions or in the collectibles market. As collector interest in the subject grew, the definition of Art Deco has expanded to include a much broader scope than purists might prefer.
Today, Art Deco is quite loosely interpreted to include a very wide range of objects from fine art to the mundane and produced as early as the first decade of the 20th century until the beginning of the fifth decade. The style is characterized by several different elements of design which may include the following: an understated and restrained elegance; sharply angular and geometric lines, often void of any decoration; futuristic concepts; suggestions of speed and movement; both vivid and contrasting colors; Jazz age and Flapper influences; Aztec, African and Egyptian cultural symbols; and certain materials which became popular such as bakelite, celluloid, chrome and dark colored glass.
Anything which exhibits one or more of these traits is generally classified as part of the Art Deco period. It does not matter if it is an original work by a famous person or merely a mass produced dime-store novelty. Consequently, and fortunately, Art Deco can be enjoyed by collectors as diverse as its many dimensions.
Serious wealthy collectors purchase creations by top designers, artists and manufacturers identified with the early years of the era. Prices for such examples can easily mount to five figures. Many who like Deco cannot compete in that market. But as in other collecting areas, once the top of the line has been singled out and record prices paid for choice pieces, a second level of collecting surfaces which attracts a wider, though perhaps less affluent, group. Consequently, a middle ground of Deco collecting has arrived on the scene. From the offerings at shops and shows across the country, as well as a perusal of most general value surveys on the subject, interest in Art Deco with medium to moderate prices is quite strong.While many pay thousands of dollars for Art Deco rarities and originals, perhaps seeing such purchases as investments and true works or art, there is also a growing number of enthusiasts who collect Art Deco for the fun of it! Possible future value is usually only a secondary consideration. Some might take issue with the assertion, but Art Deco is fun. Other collecting periods cannot really be characterized in that way. For instance, Victorians is intriguing, and collectors search for the many “necessities” and unique items of everyday life, obsolete today, but vital at that time. Likewise, primitives are very interesting. Collectors seek the ingenuity of those individuals who had to fashion their own tools, dishes and furniture from whatever materials were at hand. Such articles may be curiosities, but they would hardly be described as “fun.” Most items commonly associated with Art Deco today, however, usually evoke a smile or sense of amusement because of their exaggerated lines, bold colors, ultra sophisticated or irreverent nature or cleverness of design.
The focus of this book is on a very general interpretation of Art Deco. It is intended for the collector who enjoys the vibrant spirit of Art Deco and who collects according to individual whimsy and moderate pocketbook, perhaps splurging at times on certain irresistible objects! Pieces illustrated include some examples by famous “names” with prices of over $1,000.00 but many other items are representative of the mass productions of numerous manufacturers. Those prices are certainly more now than when the articles were first produced, but they are still affordable. There are also other objects made by little known or unknown creators whose prices are quite nominal. Examples are not limited to items of French origin but include Deco from many other countries. Art Deco made in America, Czechoslovakia and Japan is especially becoming more and more popular with collectors. Concentration on Deco shapes and motifs instead of particular designers or manufacturers can often yield unexpected Art Deco treasures!
In the photographs, decorative objects for the home
and personal accessories are grouped under 10 categories which comprise some of the most popular Art Deco collectibles. These categories are not meant to be comprehensive. The broad scope of the subject does not make such a survey possible. Hopefully, a sample of items in these categories will serve to suggest other Deco collecting possibilities as well as Art Deco’s open ended nature. The majority of examples were available on the open market: that is, items sold at antique shops and shows rather than from private collections or museums. A price range has been established for individual items based not only on what the dealer was asking for the piece but from information gathered from numerous other sources on similar or identical pieces.
From the items featured, certain earmarks of what is currently collected as Art Deco can be seen. For instance, typical subjects of decoration are dominated by human figures either in a nude or semi-nude state, and depictions of the sun, moon and earth are prevalent. Suggestions of the future and of speed are shown either by items actually shaped in the form of an airplane, ship or rocket, or as a decorative motif.
All types of geometric shapes and lines can be found incorporated into the designs of most objects. The cube, triangle or pyramid, and stepped or zig-zagged lines are common. Crescent or half-moon shapes made into rainbows or fans, spheres representing the world, and many sundry other shapes such as a diamond, cylinder, ellipse or oval, square, hexagon and octagon stand out as well.
Repetitive, tangential, overlapping and ziggurat patterns plus juxtaposed designs appear in the design or decor of a number of pieces. Also quite noticeable are many different construction materials, ranging from ceramic, glass, ivory, marble, metals and wood to metal alloys and synthetics. From the Art Deco pictured, perhaps it will also be clear why Art Deco often is described not only by such words as chic, clever, elegant, smart, sophisticated, streamlined and tailored but also as amusing, flippant, risqud and fun!

art deco 1920s dresser
art deco 1920s drop leaf dining table
art deco 1920s throug 1940s
art deco 1940 club chairs green vinly
art deco 5 drawer dressing table with round mirror
art deco antique figurine
art deco antique tube  chair
art deco arm chair
art deco artist’s palate shaped oak table
art deco ashtray
art deco bar black lacquer
art deco bar commode
art deco barley twist
art deco bars for the home
art deco bartender cigarette dispenser
art deco barware
art deco bergere wood back
art deco black fabric chair
art deco– black grooved table lamps (large )
art deco black laquer screen
art deco bowles
art deco brass, round vertical shade, nude figure, antique table lamp,
art deco british furniture
art deco bronze art style lamp
art deco cabinet 1928
art deco cabinet legs
art deco cabinet sliding glass doors
art deco cabinets and chests
art deco candle sticks glass
art deco cane and wood chair
art deco carved tables
art deco cat statues
art deco ceramic  figurines
art deco ceramic figurine maker jd
art deco ceramic figurines
art deco ceramic horse
art deco ceramics decoration jean luce
art deco chair concept
art deco chair facts
art deco chair lacquer
art deco chair materials
art deco chair wood inlay lightning bolt
art deco chairs
art deco chairs rosewood
art deco chest of drawers 1940’s
art deco chest with radio
art deco china cabinets
art deco china pattern
art deco china patterns
art deco china set
art deco china sets
art deco chinese enameled brass
art deco chinese redwood jewellery box
art deco chrome and vinyl arm chairs
art deco cigarette cigar stand
art deco cigarette dispenser bar
art deco clear glass
art deco clear glass rocket vase
art deco club chair inlaid wood
art deco club chair scroll arm
art deco club chair triangular arms
art deco club chairs + wooden applied handles
art deco cocktail
art deco commode
art deco commode inlaid
art deco consol
art deco corner cabinet
art deco curved front buffet
art deco denmark pavilion
art deco design cromer
art deco desk and chair
art deco diner figure
art deco diner germany
art deco dining chairs
art deco dining furniture d.r. patent
art deco dining furniture of the 1920’s
art deco dining set birdseye maple
art deco dining table u shaped base
art deco dining table white cherry
art deco dining table with concave barrel pedestal
art deco dining tables
art deco display cabinet sun ray
art deco display cabinet with cupboards
art deco drawer construction
art deco drawers oak
art deco dress reprodutions
art deco dresser lamps
art deco dresser mahogany 1940’s
art deco dressers antique
art deco dressers california
art deco dressing table construction and materials
art deco dressing table plans
art deco drinks cabinets
art deco drop center dresser
art deco dropleaf dining table
art deco english gentlemans bar furniture
art deco escutcheons
art deco european
art deco exhibition jean luce
art deco exposition 1925
art deco extending table
art deco ferniture black lacquered
art deco figure ceramic
art deco figurine
art deco figurine gentleman
art deco figurine lamp
art deco figurines german
art deco figurines goldscheider
art deco finials
art deco floor ashtray pipe
art deco folding chair bed
art deco folding chairs
art deco folding open desk
art deco french breakfast dining set
art deco french clock
art deco french club chairs with flat arms
art deco french interior examples
art deco french original furniture+auction
art deco furniture + schoen
art deco furniture black lacquered jean dunand
art deco furniture black leather
art deco furniture in germany
art deco furniture kinds
art deco furniture parts
art deco furniture prices germany
art deco furniture/bar with glass sliding doors
art deco glass and silver inlaid candlestick
art deco glass door wood cabinet octagon
art deco glass heater
art deco glass nude dish
art deco glazed bureax
art deco hamered lamp
art deco harp table
art deco head straws
art deco hinged top bar and cabinet
art deco ice bucket top hat
art deco incense burner
art deco inlaid wood designs
art deco inlaid wood furniture
art deco inlay
art deco inlay bedroom suite
art deco inlay wooden flatware box
art deco inspired bookcase
art deco interior futures
art deco iron works
art deco jacobean furniture
art deco ladies smoking
art deco ladys desk
art deco lamp of kneeling woman
art deco lampen figurine
art deco laquered desk
art deco large earthenware jug
art deco lisbon antiques
art deco machine age furniture
art deco mahogany desk
art deco mahogany side chairs
art deco maple china cabinet
art deco metal screens
art deco mirrored console table
art deco mirrored end tables
art deco movement and its origins
art deco multi colored dresser aztec look
art deco music box cabinet
art deco oak dining room furniture antique
art deco oak gateleg table
art deco oak leaf
art deco office chair
art deco old chairs
art deco origen
art deco origins and  influences.
art deco oval dining tables
art deco palissy china
art deco patterns for glass platters
art deco pedestal dining table
art deco period+origins
art deco pieces chair
art deco plastic furniture paris
art deco porcelain italian
art deco pottery  in europe
art deco pottery italy
art deco pottery longwy
art deco rectangle pattern design
art deco representatives
art deco rocket cabinet
art deco screen doors
art deco seats
art deco secretary
art deco semicircular desk
art deco shape examples
art deco shapes with ottoman influence
art deco shelley plates block design
art deco shop france
art deco shops sweden
art deco skyscraper clock
art deco smoke
art deco smoking lamp
art deco smoking table
art deco sofa tables
art deco spindle desk
art deco stoneware cream and sugar with lids and bases large angular
art deco style candlesticks
art deco style dinner service
art deco style origin
art deco style side chair
art deco style stemware
art deco stylised figure lady dancer red italian alabaster
art deco swedish armchairs
art deco table centerpieces
art deco tallboy oak
art deco tulip watch penchant
art deco u base dining table maple
art deco u shape vase
art deco upholstered chair with one curving side c.1930
art deco upholstered chairs
art deco upholstery fabric
art deco walnut chairs
art deco walnut dresser
art deco wood chair legs
art deco wood dressers
art deco wooden armchairs
art deco wooden chair design
art deco wooden materials
art deco wooden round back armchair
art deco wooden screen
art deco writing bureau/display cabinet
art deco writing desk