Posts Tagged ‘upholstery’

CHAIRS AND STOOLS
The chair as we left it in our chapter on Jacobean work was still a sturdily built piece of work though tending to
DETAILS OF THE CONSTRUCTION DRAWING, FIG. 74.
A. Queen Anne tallboy made in two separate parts.
B. Section through the built-up cross-grained cornice.
C. How thin oak back is fixed on.
D. Side viewof drawer showing dovetails.
E. Cut -away view with construction of carcase and drawer.
become lighter. A few were made with stuffed seats, and occasionally upholstered backs were added, but for the most part they were entirely of wood—or possibly were fitted with a leather seat stretched over the rails. This, though being softer than wood, could hardly be called upholstery.
After the middle of the century there arose a custom of using cane for the better type of chair back, and rushes for the commoner type. Upholstery, too, was used, though this did not become really popular until the reign of William and Mary. We may mention here that springs were never used. As a matter of passing interest, it was not until the nineteenth century that these came into use.
Twist Turning.—Caning is usually associated with the tall-back chairs which became popular during the second half of the seventeenth century, and this brings us to an interesting development, that of twist turning. Until about1625 or so only plain, straightforward turning had been attempted. The work was mounted in a curious contrivance known as the pole lathe, over which a long springy pole (hence the name) was suspended from a bracket in the wall. To the end of the pole was fixed a rope which stretched down to a drum attached to the chuck. It was taken a turn around

this and then down to a treadle. Thus when the operator depressed the treadle the work was revolved in a forward motion and the pole above was bent downwards. When the pressure on the treadle was released the pole sprang back, turning the work in the opposite direction.
It is obvious from this that the actual cutting could be done whilst the work was revolving forwards only, and when one considers the toughness of English oak, and the large size in which many of the old bulbous turnings were made, it is not surpri3ing that the turners did not go in a great deal for experiment. However, some ingenious craftsman, probably noticing the spiral made by his gouge as he passed it rapidly along the surface, did try his hand at forming a spiral or twist, and by a combination of pre-

liminary sawing out, rough turning, and use of carving tools to finish off, produced a rather uneven sort of twist.
It was not an easy business, however, one of the chief difficulties being that of making the same number of twists on each of a set of legs, and as a consequence twist turning did not make a great deal of progress until someone thought of making an attachment which would carry the gouge along sideways at a predetermined rate, which was set in accordance with the rate of revolutions of the work. In this way any number of turnings could be made, all exactly alike. There still are a few of these old pole lathes in use in the outlying districts of Buckinghamshire, where turnings for chairs are still made on a large scale.
A chair with twist turnings was given in Fig. 64 on p. 82, and in this we see the passing out of the old oak tradition. Chair making suffered something of a decline in the third quarter of the seventeenth century, at any rate from the point of view of construction. Instead of the seat rails being strongly tenoned between the legs, they were merely placed on top with no stronger attachment than a dowel

turned at the top of the legs. The same thing applied to the top rail of the back, which was simply fitted to dowels at the ends of the uprights. This detail is shown clearly in the chair in Fig. 75, though in this case the front seat rail is still tenoned between the legs.
This chair is fairly typical of the tall-back which persisted until the end of the seventeenth century. Turning was used considerably, even for the tops of the shaped front legs, and it is interesting to note that the back legs splay backwards. Even the early tall-backs did not have this detail, and if ever it were essential in any chair it was in one which was essentially lightly built and had a high back. For a man to lean back even slightly would be dangerous.

The legs are interesting in that they foreshadow the cabriole leg which was shortly to become popular, though when examined closely it is seen that they consist actually of a number of scrolls joined together with floral and leaf carving. Scroll work of this kind was used widely in chairs and stands of all kinds. It is seen in the front stretcher rail and in the back of that in Fig. 75.
Chairs with Cabriole Legs.—The introduction of the cabriole leg seemed to strike a new note in the design of chairs. It was not simply that a new motif was being used, but that the whole conception of the design became altered. Compare, for example, the two chairs on p. 98. It is obvious that the one has turned uprights whilst the other has shaped ones, but, in addition, there is an entirely new spirit in that in Fig. 76. In the earlier example, Fig. 75, one is conscious of a series of parts jointed together in an obvious sort of way. It is not suggested that this is a fault, but simply that the construction is at once apparent. One can count up the parts—two uprights, cresting rail, lower rail, seat rail, stretcher, and so on. And the earlier the chair the more obvious the parts and their purpose becomes.
Now turn to Fig. 76. It is not easy to see where the uprights and the top rail of the back begin and end. They merge one into the other, and the same thing applies to the slat and the rail beneath. The back is one whole, so to speak, and we shall find that this feeling becomes still more apparent in later chairs.
Reverting to the legs again, these are an early form of the cabriole type, and exemplify the Dutch influence which the accession of William of Orange brought with it. The probability is that many of these chairs were the work of foreign craftsmen who settled down here. A cabriole leg is by no means an easy thing to make, and it is doubtful whether a native craftsman could have turned out a really fine shape without previous experience. The awkward point about making the leg is that it is difficult to set down the true shape on paper. It can be drawn at the front, side, and possibly three-quarter positions, but the actual leg is seen from all angles and is normally viewed from above, a viewpoint which the drawing does not present.
Furthermore, in the very nature of the work the guiding lines on the wood are cut away as the work proceeds,

because the whole thing is more or less rounded in section. In actual practice the leg is cut out of a square right through to the over-all shape when looked at from the front. A corresponding shape is cut at the side, this producing a square cut shape. The point to realise is that the cutting

of the first shape automatically removes the lines of the second shape, and it is only by temporarily replacing the sawn-away parts that the shape can be cut true. In any case the resulting shape has only a distant resemblance to the finished line, and it is in the final shaping that experience is needed, because there are no square lines to which to work. Everything is curved in both directions, and it is only by eye that a really fine shape can be produced, one which looks well when seen from every angle. The whole thing is complicated when carving is to appear, because sufficient thickness has to be allowed for this, and the presence of these plain lumps is apt, to give a false impression of the shape as a whole.
We have gone into these practical points at some length because the cabriole leg became so characteristic a feature of

furniture for the following seventy-five years or so. Really fine legs are few and far between, the majority being overdone in the shape, and we shall find that they deteriorated considerably after Queen Anne’s reign until rescued by the school of Chippendale.
In the present instance, Fig. 76, it will be noticed that the legs terminate in a hoof foot, whilst at the top the sides are scrolled in imitation of the horns of the goat. These details are often found in William and Mary furniture, after which they gave place to the turned club foot, with which we shall meet in the next example. In the meantime it should be noted that the legs are still linked together with stretcher rails. It is true that the last-named are on an altogether lighter scale than in earlier pieces (see Fig. 64) and are gracefully shaped, but the chairmaker has not yet felt confident enough to omit them entirely, which was the next stage in the development of the chair.
Another feature of the chair in Fig. 76 met with for the first time is the curve in the rake of the back, and it is interesting to glance at the diagram in Fig. 78, which shows the various stages of development. There is the earliest straight post (J) cut from a square of timber and continuing from leg to back in a straight line. This was used mostly in the old settles of Gothic times (see Fig. 14, p. 23). Then came the idea of setting the back at an angle (K), a phase which lasted until past the middle of the seventeenth century. An example is given in Fig. 37, P. SO. In the same period in a few chairs little blocks were added at the bottom as at L to help to counterbalance the weight. This is exemplified in Fig. 18, P. 25. Next, the legs were at last splayed as at M, though the back still remained straight without any curve (see Fig. 65, P. 82). N gives the next development, as in the chair in Fig. 76, whilst 0 shows the shape which the majority of chairs in the later eighteenth century had, of which Fig. 102 is an example.
A last point to note about the chair in Fig. 76 is the shaped splat. This was something quite fresh (see last example in Fig. 75), and had certain definite stages in development. It is shown in the armchair in Fig. 77 in its most characteristic form. Apart from its shaped edges it follows the general line of the back when viewed from the side.
These two chairs in Fig. 77 exemplify the walnut period in its fullest stage of development in the Queen Anne period. That to the left is especially characteristic in the shape of the back, the splat, and the full cabriole legs with turned club feet. Note that the back is appreciably lower and that the shaping of the uprights has become more pronounced, especially in the rounded shape at the top. The splat, too, is entirely solid and has an urn-like formation.
The fact that the backs were shaped in both front and side elevations made them extremely expensive to produce, and it was for this reason that the square back type to the right in Fig. 77 was made for a more economical job. The uprights merely taper and they are quite straight in their rake. In the best chairs, however, the full shaping was given, and on some models the back was entirely veneered with cross-grain walnut. Another feature to note is the entire absence of stretcher rails.
Just as the development in the shape of the rake of the
.
back can be followed in a series of stages, so the plain shape of the seats developed on certain characteristic lines. These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 78, from the square boxlike formation of early Tudor times to the tapering shape of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and the elaborately shaped seats of walnut furniture. Later on there was a return to the simpler form.

One other innovation in the walnut period in connection with the seats was the loose drop-in variety shown in Fig. 77

to the right. These were not used exclusively, the ” stuff-over ” method (left in Fig. 77) being also used frequently.
The development of upholstery has already been mentioned, and in Fig. 79 we have the fully upholstered arm-chair of about 1705. The projecting wings and the scrolled arms are especially characteristic, and bear out the prevailing popularity of shaped work.
.
Stools.—The two stools in Fig. 8o are of the William and Mary (left) and Queen Anne (right) periods. In the earlier specimens the legs are actually turned, and the scrolled and recessed detail is carved out of the shape. The shaped stretchers are similar to those already shown in the chest of drawers in Fig. 70, except that the edges are moulded instead of being square. In the Queen Anne stool the stretchers are omitted. The legs are worth noting in that they terminate with spade feet. These are carved out entirely, no turning being used. Other features often found are the shell carving on the knee with the pendant husks below, and the scrolls at the sides immediately beneath the ears.
The day-bed in the form shown in Fig. 67, P. 84, did not last into the eighteenth century. Its place was taken by the settee, which was rather like two or more chairs joined together side by side. There was sometimes a centre leg, though it was frequently omitted.

FIG. 75. TALL-BACK CHAIR WITH UPHOLSTERED SEAT.
Late 17th century.
Note that the top back rail is simply pegged to the turned uprights. The legs which are suggestive of the cabriole shape are in reality a series of scrolls.
FIG.76. WILLIAM AND MARY
CHAIR.
Late 17th century.
The back shows the hoop form in its embryo stage. It has the appearance of a complete thing in itself instead of consisting of uprights, cross rails and slats as in Fig. 75 above.
The legs have the hoof foot and scrolled ears In Imitation of the goat’s horns.

FIG. 77. WALNUT CHAIRS WITH CABRIOLE LEGS AND CLUB FEET.
Early 18th century.
The left-hand example exemplifies the development of double shaped work in
the hooped back. In the less expensive chair to the right the back is raked only,
with no shaping at the front. Note the use of the urn-shaped splat in both
examples.

FIG. 79. UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR.
Early i8th century.
Although thickly padded, these chairs were
never fitted with springs. The last named
belong to the 19th century.

FIG. 80. STOOLS OF THE WALNUT PERIOD.
Late 17th century.    Early z8th century.
The legs of the left-hand stool are turned and the carving is cut into the turning.
Note the omission of the stretcher in the right-hand stool. The shell and husk
carving is typical.

FIG. 81. SMALL BUREAU AND BUREAU WITH CUPBOARD.
Late 17th century.    Early 18th century.
The inverted cup shape of the turned legs in the small bureau shows the William and Mary period. The mirrored doors of the cupboard in the right-hand example were a common feature in Queen Anne pieces of this kind.

FIG. 82. SMALL WALNUT WRITING TABLE.
Early 18th century.
This exemplifies well the way in which the construction
was entirely concealed by the use of veneer. The apron
piece beneath the drawers is often seen in Queen Anne
tables.

FIG. 83. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD SECRETAIRE.
Early 18th century.
The front of the upper carcase is hinged so that it drops down and Corms a
writing top. The inside is fitted up for stationery.

FIG. 84. WALNUT VENEERED CHINA CABINET.
Early 18th century.
The barred doors owed their origin to the difficulty of producing glass In
large panes. They were cross-grained with a rib at the back.

FIG. 85. CHINA CABINET WITH BARRED DOORS ON STAND.
Late 171h century.
The craze for collecting china encouraged by Queen Mary was the cause
of the introduction of the china cabinet.

LAVISH, HIGHLY ORIGINAL furniture created by designers working in Spain and Italy represented the most exotic form of Art Nouveau.
Italy called the style Stile Liberty, after the London shop at the forefront of the movement, or Stile Floreale, due to the nature-inspired decoration that characterized the movement. Italy had a rich tradition of decoration based on nature, from Roman mosaics to the grandiose style of Baroque (see pp.40-41). The new style – on show at the 1902 International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts at Turin – was taken up by artisans such as Ernesto Basile, a master of Stile Floreale; the prolific designer and cabinet-maker, Carlo Zen; and Eugenio Quarto. Quarto’s exquisitely carved pieces were praised for appealing to Italian tastes and modern living needs, rather than replicating northern European Art Nouveau designs.
CARLO BUGATTI
However, it was Carlo Bugatti who held pride of place as a designer of extraordinary originality. Bugatti established workshops in Milan in 1888, where he created an eclectic interpretation of Art Nouveau, based upon flowers, animals, and plants, Egyptian, Byzantine, and Moorish influences, Japanese art, and fantasy.
The handcrafted furniture produced in Bugatti’s workshop – desks,
cabinets, chairs. and settees – was not well constructed but had a rustic, imaginative charm. The furniture often combined useful features, such as tables with built-in cabinets. and chairs that incorporated lamps. Pieces used a wide range of sumptuous materials including silk, leather, and vellum for upholstering chairs and covering boxes and tabletops, and ebony, bone, mother-of-pearl, and metals, which were used as inlays.
The range of Bugatti’s influences can be seen in his use of soft, warm colours, textiles, and strips of beaten or pierced metal evocative of North Africa, and the distinctive shield
backs, crescent legs, and pinnacle and minaret-shapes inspired by Istamic motifs. Bugatti caused a sensation with the furniture he designed for particular settings, such as the prize-winning Moorish interior he created for the Italian Pavilion at the 1902 Turin International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts.
While Bugattis early furniture was robust, with lively, complex patterns, he later developed a more restrained style that depended on a palette of pale colours and serpentine curves, influenced by the Parisian Art
Nouveau designers.
SPAIN AND GAUDI
A band of Catalan architects, led by Antom Gaudi in Barcelona, brought the Art Nouveau style to Spain. A daringly original designer, Gaudi created idiosyncratic furniture that embraced nature with its sinuous shapes and lavish use of decorative flower and plant motifs. Gaudi’s furniture featured several practical elements, such as cupboards that incorporated small tables. He often worked in oak, and much of his furniture was created for his
sculptural buildings, such as Casa Milo and the Guell Palace. Other Spanish champions of Art Nouveau included cabinet-makers Gaspar Homar and Juan Busquet, who were known for their fantastic furniture.
Parlour, designed by Agostino Lauro True to the concept that the room should be designed as a unified whole, all the elements of this parlour follow the same sinuous styling. The built-in bookcases are an integral part of the wall design
and the furniture echoes the curves of the panelling.

ITALIAN CHAIR
This Italian side chair was designed by Giacomo Cometti and is made of carved oak. The sinuous carving on the back of the chair confined to the splat, and the basic shape of the chair is uncluttered by ornate decoration. The upholstery is attached to the seat with small brass studs. c.1902.
SPANISH CABINET
This corner cabinet is made of oak. It has a round top with two curved glazed doors at the front. The doors are divided into six panels of glass by sinuous wooden partitions. The interior of the cabinet has two shelves and the piece stands on three legs. 1904-05.
ITALIAN SIDEBOARD
The upper section consists of a central cupboard and drawers flanked by open storage. The lower section contains a marble-topped cupboard. Cometti was an artist-turned craftsman who originally trained as a sculptor. He was heavily influenced by the English Arts and Crafts
Movement. c.1902.

NUT WOOD ARMCHAIRS
This pair of dark stained armchairs was designed by Carlo Bugatti. Each chair is decorated with inlaid pewter and embossed copper banding. The seat and back are upholstered in natural leather and further embellished with woollen tassels. c.1900.
ITALIAN INLAID SIDEBOARD
Made by Carlo Bugatti, this sideboard shows Japanese, Moorish, and Egyptian influences. The doors are covered with vellum, and the upper door is hinged and drops down to reveal shelving and small drawers. The whole piece is contained within a four pillar construction; the frame is made of brown stained and
OCCASIONAL TABLE
This mahogany occasional table by Carlo Bugatti has a top inlaid with pewter and bone and circular marquetry, and sides with stylized florets and roundels. The legs feature embossed bronzed coverings. Early 20th century.
PRAYER BENCH
This prayer bench, designed by Antoni Gaudi, has a curved back, with flat armrests and a slightly bowed seat. The bench is supported on slender and elegant curving legs, which are linked by stretchers. Early 20th century.

19TH CENTURY GERMANY EMPIRE FURNITURE

ROYAL INFLUENCES
It was the Bonapartes themselves who really made Empire furniture fashionable in Germany. The Emperor’s brother, Jerome Bonaparte, became King of Westphalia in 1810, and he furnished the Schloss Wilhelmshohe with Empire-style pieces. These included pieces ordered from Georges Jacob-Desmalter (see p.201), and an imposing desk which was decorated with marble reliefs designed by
Friedrich Wichmann. In 1806, Napoleon had a suite of Empire furniture made for his Resident at Wurzburg, Franconia. These pieces were inspired by the work of French architects Percier and Fontaine, whose work Napoleon favoured. Their ISO] pattern book, Recueil de decorations interieurs comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a l`ameublement, was well received and highly influential in Germany, inspiring local craftsmen to produce their own publications.
WHEN NAPOLEON BONAPARTE became
ruler of Germany in 1806 he brought the Empire style to the region. Germany and Austria retained
close stylistic links with France, as many German
craftsmen trained and worked in Paris, and became familiar with the Empire style. The grand, Classical motifs
used in Empire style furniture, including eagles, mythical creatures, laurel
Gift bronze embellishes the interior fittings.
VIENNESE SECRETAIRE
This exquisite secretaire is made of fruitwood and mahogany. It has a lyre-shaped case which is decorated with partial inlay and gilding. The case has a single arched pediment, flanked on either side by gilded Classical figures. A rectangular, fall-front writing surface opens to reveal a fitted interior with an
arrangement of drawers and arched compartments, luxuriously decorated with gilt bronze. The lower section of the secretaire consists of two graduated drawers which are decorated to give the appearance of the strings of a lyre. The whole piece is raised on a rectangular plinth which is supported on carved paw feet. c.1807.
Fall-front writing surface
The body of the desk is modelled on a lyre.
The applied bronze decoration includes gilded stars and lion’s heads.
A rectangular plinth supports the piece.
Carved paw feet
VIENNESE GUERIDON
This mahogany-veneered and partially carved gueridon has an overhanging table top with a gilt-edged round frieze below. The three tapering legs are topped by lions’ heads and terminate in a tripartite base with paw feet. c.1810
BEECHWOOD CHAIR
This chair has a scrolled back and rose-coloured upholstery on both the back and seat. The chair has tapering front legs and cabriole back legs. The design is attributed to Leo von Klenze and the chair is thought to have come from the Resident in Munich. c.1818.
GERMAN INTERPRETATIONS German furniture was often larger and grander than its French Empire equivalents. Locally-produced pieces tended to have heavy columns and be rigidly symmetrical.
Empire furniture was predominantly a style for the nobility and was soon adopted by the rulers of the monarchies and princedoms that made up the German Confederation after the Vienna Congress in 1815. These rulers showed off their power by building new castles or by lavishly refurbishing existing ones, and the exuberant interiors of the palaces were designed in the Empire style.
Anterooms and throne rooms were furnished with gilded Empire pieces. Gifted court cabinet-makers produced various ensembles with matching sofa tables and console tables based on French designs or adapted from the fashion magazines that were popular at the time. Private rooms were furnished with mahogany pieces ornamented with gilt-bronze mounts. Decorative motifs were influenced by those of ancient Egypt.
Seating furniture was also directly inspired by the designs of the ancient world. The influence of the Greek Klismos chair, for example, can be seen in the chairs designed by Leo von
Klenze, who worked for the Bavarian King Ludwig I in Munich and whose Neoclassical buildings form much of the city of Munich today.
VIENNESE DESIGN
Vienna was a leading centre for the production of furniture. It was here that some of the most inventive designs were developed, including the lyre-secretaire, which often took on unusual shapes. Unlike the designers and craftsmen working in the German
states, Viennese designers favoured the striking contrast of ebonized wood and gilt bronze and created finely cast and chased gilt bronze mounts that equalled the work of French craftsmen.
One of the most gifted Viennese cabinet-makers was Josef Ulrich Danhauser. He ran the first Viennese furniture manufacturers, from 1804 until his death in 1829, and made his name by decorating his furniture with wood paste moulded to look like expensive bronzes.
This table has a rectangular top with rounded corners, which rests above a single frieze drawer. The piece is raised on sharply tapering, square-section legs. c.1810. H:77crn
AUSTRIAN CHERRY WOOD TABLE
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL (1781-1841)
THE MOST INFLUENTIAL GERMAN MASTER-BUILDER OF THE EARLY 19th CENTURY,
SCHINKEI_ WAS ALSO A CITY PLANNER AND ARTIST, AND A FAMOUS FURNITURE DESIGNER.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was born near Berlin, and originally trained as an architect as one of the first students at the new Berlin Bouakademie. He studied under the architect Friedrich Gilly, whose plans for a monument to Frederick the Great of Prussia greatly inspired the young Schinkel.
He travelled to France and Italy, and was influenced by the Classical-style architecture and furnishings he saw. His theory was that new designs should draw on the ancient world for inspiration, rather than slavishly recreate it. On his return to Germany, he worked for the Prussian state, including working as a
stage designer for the National Theatre.
One of Schinkels earliest works was a bed with bedside table, designed for Queen Louise for the Charlottenburg castle in Berlin. His use of light-coloured veneers anticipated the Biedermeier style (see pp.216-17). He was not
afraid to experiment with shape and created pieces designed for specific places within a room. Typical Schinkel designs are for architectural secretaires and comfortable armchairs. His publication Vorbilder fur Fabrihanten and Handwerker (Role Models for Makers and Craftsmen) in 1835 had a widespread influence. In later years, Schinkels work drew less on the
Neoclassical style, and more on the designs of the Renaissance.
Schinkel armchair This generously upholstered armchair has a curvaceous frame with a high backrest and is decorated with motifs from the ancient world.
Schinkel in Naples This oil painting, by Franz Louis Catel, shows Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Naples in 1824 during his second Italian journey. 1824
This rectilinear commode is made from mahogany veneered with maple. It has canted corners and three drawers with ebony stringing. The commode is supported on square, tapering legs. Early 19th century.

empire antique hall bench
empire bohemia china
empire bureau mahogany
empire chair reproduction claw foot
empire chairs with brass  feet
empire chairs with lions paw brass  feet
empire chamber pot
empire chest of drawers+acanthus
empire claw foot sofa
empire couch prince of wales emblem
empire desk with claw feet
empire dining chairs antique
empire drop leaf
empire drop leaf lyre base mahogany table
empire drop leaf pedestal table
empire era+leather top+pull out side extensions+mahogany+violin/harp shape on sides of coffee table
empire folding chair
empire furniture co
empire furniture drawer handles
empire furniture dressers with large mirror
empire furniture with scroll feet
empire gateleg table
empire mahogany antique bureau
empire mahogany chest of drawers bureau
empire mahogany table with one drawer
empire oak buffet
empire oak buffet with mirror
empire period / lebrun clock
empire period furniture
empire period restauration extension dining tables
empire period restoration extension dining tables
empire period sideboards
empire pillar and claw table
empire porcelain 1960’s  trinket holder
empire rectangle library table
empire revival buffet
empire sheraton bureaus
empire sideboard
empire state art deco lamp
empire style chest
empire style dining chair
empire style display cabinet french influence
empire style dresser birds eye maple
empire style drop leaf desk
empire’ style drop leaf desk
empire style furniture values
empire style furniture with scroll feet
empire style settee floral marquetry
empire swan egyptian chair antique

german “baroque cabinet” “18th century”
german 18th century porcelain figures
german 1930 furniture
german 1930’s burled walnut sideboard
german 1940 art deco
german 19th century furniture
german antique china cabinets
german antique farmers trestle tables
german antique fold-up game table
german antique inlaid wood table
german antique shrunks
german antique sugar and creamers from the 17th century
german antique wood chair 1800’s carved
german antique woodworking bench
german armoire oak 19th century
german art deco cabinet
german art deco furniture value
german art nouveau writing desk
german austrian baroque cabinet 18th century
german cabinet doors metal inlay
german candlesticks
german carved inlay cabinet
german ceramic figurines 1930
german coat of arms +horoldt
german copy of derby porcelain figures
german deco furniture
german dining table with slide leaves
german dish makers 1920″s
german furniture antique
german furniture characteristics 1920 - 1930
german furniture design art deco
german furniture makers whose name starts with c
german furniture movements 1930 leather chrome
german furniture styles
german hand painted cards dated  1702
german heubach bisque piano babies
german industrial art deco furniture buffet
german made antique wooden medicine desks
german made display cabinet
german majolica marks
german meissen antique figurines
german oak furniture
german oak sideboards late 19th century
german oakleaf
german ornamental vases and plates
german pewter tea pot wood knob held by a pin
german porcelain lace makers
german porcelain mother of pearl china
german porcelain teapots
german porcelain with qeen of james i image
german pottery - jugs
german pottery 17th century
german pottery marks export
german religous porcelain
german silver candlesticks find value
german table top patterns
german unglazed porceline figures
german victorian settee value
german vintage linen press cupboard
german wood inlay art
german wood inlay work
german wooden inlay art
germany, lacquer furniture, cherry

GEORGE IV AND WILLIAM IV
WHEN GEORGE III in 1820, his
scandalous son, who had been ruling as Regent for nine years, became King George IV Known [or his extravagant tastes, the interiors created during his reign, particularly those at Windsor Castle, are some of the most sumptuous in British history. The reconstruction of the apartments on the east and south sides of the Upper Ward of the Castle between 1824 and
1830 was entrusted to the architect Sir Jeffry Wyattville. The furniture and upholstery was supplied by cabinetmaker Nicholas Morel. These heavily gilded interiors have a French flavour.
On George’s death in 1830, his brother became William IV In contrast to the worldly pursuits of his predecessor, William’s reign was dominated by the Reform Act, which brought about parliamentary reform.
However, this period also marked an important period of transition between the Regency and Victorian eras. Much of the furniture was still Neoclassical in style although it was generally
heavier than Regency pieces.
TOUS LES LOUIS
The interest in 18th-century French
styles dates from the late 1810s, when
French furniture became
available after the Revolution.
These pieces, especially those with tortoiseshell and brass boullework, were collected by, amongst others, the Duke of Wellington and the Prince Regent. Sometimes called the Rococo revival, it was known (incorrectly) at the time as the Louis XIV style. The serpentine lines of Louis XV furniture were re-interpreted on furniture typical of Louis XIV or XVI.
style was particularly appropriate to seat furniture with buttoned, upholstered backs or sides and plump, cabriole legs. Case furniture tended to have rectilinear, classical lines.
The Old French Style was promoted in a series of pattern books from 1825, including publications by John Taylor, Henry Whitaker, and Thomas King.
John Weale published reprints of mid 18th-century pattern books by Thomas Chippendale’s .
LATE REGENCY
Much of the mahogany furniture of the period was a heavier version of Regency designs, anticipating Victorian solidity. Carving was often Classically inspired and combined with gadrooning and ribbing. Bun feet were used on chests of drawers or plinth supports. Chair and table legs were often turned and ring-turned rather than outsplayed or sabre-form. Bed-posts were similarly designed, sometimes with acanthus carving.
This burr-oak and ebony-inlaid rectangular George IV library table has a crossbanded top above a frieze with two drawers. The table top is supported on quadruple baluster end columns linked by a stretcher. Stamped Holden & Co, Liverpool. Early 19th century.
LIBRARY TABLE
WILLIAM IV SOFA
The panelled top rail of this elegant mahogany sofa is flanked by scrolling terminals depicting acanthus leaves. The lower arms of the sofa are upholstered to match the back and seat cushion. Two bolster cushions provide added comfort. The piece has leaf-carved urn
terminals and is supported on turned and carved tapering feet with brass caps and casters. Early 19th century.
The arms are decorated with leaf motifs.
The back of the sofa is decorated with scrolling acanthus carving,.
WILLIAM IV TRIPOD TABLE
This painted tilt-top table has a rectangular top above a single column, which is supported on a tripod base. There is an armorial design painted on the surface of the table. The piece terminates in bun feet. c.1835.
This elegant mahogany bed has a moulded cornice decorated with a carved frieze and supported on four turned and carved bed posts. At the foot, the posts are reeded and leaf-carved, while at the head of the bed the posts
GEORGE IV LIBRARY ARMCHAIR
The upholstered tub back of this library armchair has a U-shaped front, which has been faced in mahogany and carved with reeds and roundels. The chair is supported on turned and reeded legs that terminate in brass casters.
The chair is one of a pair. Early 19th century. DN
are plain, enclosing a panelled head board (formerly the foot board). The scalloped pelmet and drapes are made of a floral fabric. Early 19th century.
This mirror has a rectangular plate within a gilt and silvered wooden frame, surmounted by a laurel wreath and carved with berried laurel. The lower section has a central scallop shell motif with a thistle below, flanked by rocaille, plants and foliage. One of a pair. c.1830.
WILLIAM IV MIRROR
LIBRARY TABLE
This tortoiseshell-veneered library table has a moulded edge above a shaped apron, and is supported on cabriole legs. All of the surfaces are decorated with tortoiseshell and embellished with gilt-metal mounts. c.1830.

george i early 18th century chest on chest
george i early georgian furniture
george iii sheraton mahogany bowfront sideboard valuation
george iii welsh dresser
george iv furniture mark
george iv settee with clawfoot
george iv sideboard
george jones & sons majolica vase
george jones abbey design antiques
george jones american ceramic decorator
george jones and sons china
george jones candlesticks
george jones ceramics marks
george jones china for sale
george jones fish lustre
george jones majolica
george jones majolica leaf plate
george jones potter
george jones pottery marks
george jones pottery value
george jones unmarked majolica ware
george jones vintage case knife
george jones” porcelain figures”
george nelson primevera drop leaf table
george oakley cabinet maker
george oakley furniture london
george smith 19th century furniture
george smith gate leg dining table
george smith gate leg table
george smith sofa value
george two pedestal table
george walton arts and crafts chair
georgelll side boards
georges de feure chairs
georges de feure insect
georges jacob
georgian “chamber cabinet”
georgian and victorian tables difference
georgian antique china cabinets
georgian black lacquer chairs
georgian carved round face antique furniture
georgian chippendale dresser+inlaid+”5 drawer”
georgian chippendale dresser+inlaid+mirror+scroll
georgian cylinder bureauand display cabinet
georgian dining chairs sheraton  value
georgian drop leaf side tables
georgian drop leaf writing bureau
georgian footstools
georgian furniture cabinet dresser like house
georgian furniture makers stamps
georgian gateleg drop leaf table
georgian gateleg table scallop corner
georgian mahogany table spider legs
georgian oak drop leaf table
georgian pedestal drop leaf table
georgian period antique doors
georgian period basic chairs
georgian period chair
georgian period chairs
georgian period furniture
georgian period pattern
georgian pie crust pedestal end tables
georgian rectangular gate leg table
georgian reproduction pedestal coffee table
georgian serpentine cutlery boxes
georgian shagreen knife box
georgian sheffie ld war mer
georgian side table marble top
georgian sideboard with ring turned legs
georgian style chest carving
georgian tambour top desk
georgian tub chairs
georgian walnut drop leaf table
georigian period chairs

NAPOLEON CROWNED HIMSELF Emperor
in 1804. From this date until his abdication in 1814, and final defeat by Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, he dominated the European scene. Moreover, his taste, and the Empire style that he cultivated, became omnipresent in Europe.
Already emerging before 1804, this austere style sought to associate Napoleon’s Empire with the glories of ancient Egypt and ancient Rome. This aim manifested itself in an almost archaeological interest in Classical motifs, promoted by Perrier and Fontaine, whose Recueil was
The frieze is decorated with
a central gilt-bronze rosette,
flanked by palmettes.
The protruding columns
have gilt-bronze
capitals and bases.
republished in 1812. The light style of furniture that prevailed before the turn of the century was now transformed into a truly imperial idiom in keeping with Napoleon’s despotic tendencies.
EMPIRE MOUNTS
Neoclassical influences are evident in the ubiquitous bronze dore mounts on Empire furniture: griffons, lions, and sphinxes abound. Martial motifs were especially popular, such as trophies or crossed swords. Some of the best-quality mounts were produced in the
workshop of Pierre Thomire. His mounts appear on furniture by Beneman and Weisweiler. Other Beneman pieces are known to have similar, high-quality applique details made by Antoine-Andre Ravario.
EMPIRE MAKERS
The dissolution of the Guild of Joiners and Cabinet-Makers in 1791 meant that craftsmen could now establish workshops comprising several trades in a single location. The workshops of the ancien regime were quick to
re-open after the Revolution, seeking a wider, often middle-class, clientele, who were sometimes less demanding. Some feared that this might lead to a decline in quality French furniture. However, the finest pieces, made for the Emperor and his circle, reveal the same technical brilliance as items produced in the previous century. Many of the great ebenistes had previously worked for Louis XVI, including Bellanger, Benenian, Georges Jacob, Molitor, and Weisweiler. It was also a period of great productivity between 1810 and 1811, as much as 17,000 francs was spent on furniture for Imperial residences, and half a million francs went to Georges Jacob Desmalter alone for furniture made for the Palais des Tuileries. There
were 10,000 workers involved with furniture production in Paris during the first decade of the 19th century, making pieces for both the local and export markets. Jacob-Desmalter
employed at least 88 workers, some at his Porte Saint-Denis workshop.
Upholstery and drapery sometimes overpowered the Empire room. Ceilings could be tented in strong, usually striped, colours (blues, reds,
The Empire style was born from a merger of art and political aspirations in a heady, post-Revolution atmosphere upheaval. It was
greens, and yellows) to echo tented military accommodation. The embroidered patterns on chair upholstery were both large and bold.
NOVEL FORMS
Several novel forms also appeared. The lit en bateau was very fashionable, often with scrolled ends, raised on a dais, and draped in fabric. It was similar in form to the recamier, or day bed, and the meridienne, a type of sofa with scrolled ends, one higher than the other. For middle-class homes, the less expensive lit droit was popular; it had a headboard under a triangular pediment. For the first time,
bedrooms were furnished with a Psyche mirror, or Cheval glass. The small, round gueridon, or candlestand, served a variety of functions, and sometimes had metal legs, patinated green to simulate ancient metals, possibly set with a porphyry top.
The commode slowly became more functional and occasionally the drawers were set behind doors. Chairs were often supported by Grecian sabre back legs, and had either rectangular or over-scrolled backs. Usually the
arms were supported on human or swan forms. Empress Josephine’s dressing room at Fontainebleau probably houses the most famous Empire chairs – those with a curved back en gondole.
Finally, there were various furniture forms for writing, from the box-like secretaire d abattant (and its relative the secretaire de compiegne) to the bureau plat, which assumed grand and monumental proportions under the Empire.
ARMCHAIRS “AUX TETES DE LION”
are made of mahogany. Each has
rectilinear back, an upholstered seat
and armrests, upholstered seats are
on sabre legs, with those at the front
terminating in lion’s-paw feet. The chairs are attributed to the maker Jean-Baptiste Demay of Paris. Although lion’s masks appear frequently on British furniture of the period, they are a
relatively unusual feature on French Empire pieces. 1805
This fine-quality flame-veneered tric trac, or games, table has a removable writing table top with inset brass corners and a baize playing-card surface on the reverse. Each side has one false drawer and one drawer for playing pieces. The table stands on square, tapering legs terminating in brass casters. c.1810.

CAMPAIGN FURNITURE
SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO BE ERECTED AND DISASSEMBLED IN A FEW MOMENTS, THE FURNITURE PRODUCED FOR OFFICERS TO TAKE ON CAMPAIGN WAS AS FASHIONABLE AS THAT MADE FOR THE HOME.
AS STARTLINGLY INCONGRUOUS as
the idea seems today, the military gentleman of the Victorian period would not countenance the idea of a foreign posting without taking his drawing room suite. Indeed, it appears that the 19th-century mindset detected nothing even faintly risible when Thomas Sheraton boasted in his 1803 Cabinet Directory that the addition of his stylish, collapsible furniture to one’s kit bag-”should not retard rapid movement, either after or from the enemy”. Among the -absolutely necessary” articles he produced for use on campaign were elegant dining tables that would seat as many as 20 guests.
A LONG TRADITION OF COMFORT Campaign furniture, or “knockdown” furniture
as it was often called, has its roots in the campaigns of the Napoleonic wars (1800-15). Among the most popular examples from this initial period of production was the Wellington chest, named after the legendary Duke. Available in a variety of sizes, it featured a
hinged, lockable bar that extended from the frame to secure the drawers.
During the reign of King George III (1760-1820), campaign furniture was commissioned almost exclusively by the wealthiest officers from the upper classes and was luxurious. Fine upholstery, leather lining, and intricate hidden compartments combined to make this furniture just as comfortable and elaborate as that produced for use in the home. Soon it was not just merchant officials and military officers who bought such furniture but also seafarers and families emigrating to start a new life abroad.
GOOD BUSINESS SENSE
By the mid-Victorian period, campaign furniture was a well-established and sophisticated feature of the best cabinet-makers’ repertoires. Of course, the most important feature of campaign furniture was that it should be easily transportable. Whereas most ordinary furniture was held together with dovetail or mortise-and-tenon joints, it was crucial that
knockdown furniture could be quickly erected and taken apart with the minimum of fuss.
REGENCY CAMPAIGN BED
This mahogany campaign bed, made by join] Durham of
London, has a rectangular headboard, downswept half-sides,
reeded baluster-turned posts, an arched tester; slatted base,
and six ring-turned legs. C.1810.
WILLIAM IV CAMPAIGN CHAIR
This dining chair, one of a set of Jour, has hinges at the front and back rail, which allow it to be folded neatly once the upholstered seat and two long bolts have been removed.
Most examples used screws, which did away with the need for specialist tools. Brass mounts, placed strategically in areas that were subject to bumps and knocks, especially the corners, helped to protect the furniture while it was in transit. A Victorian brassbound chest of drawers succeeded the Wellington chest as a campaign furniture staple. Composed of two parts, it was a simple matter to separate the top and bottom sections, which could then easily be carried with the aid of brass handles sunk into the body of the wood. Much campaign furniture was meant for use in the tropics and cabinetmakers used materials that were suited to extremes of heat and humidity. Canvas seats
were more comfortable in these conditions than wooden or upholstered examples, and cane furniture was far lighter and better suited to tropical climates than solid wood.
FASHION ON THE FRONT
Although campaign furniture was generally less fussy than that used in the home, expats and those on overseas assignments strove to keep up with the latest London fashions. The insular and competitive nature of life on camp was such that people would attempt to trump the efforts of the next man by acquiring the most extensive suite of furniture in the most up-to-date design. Furthermore, it was important for the colonialists to establish their perceived superiority over their charges. By displaying the wealth and sophisticated fashions of the seat of empire, an unspoken message might be conveyed to the “barbarous” natives. Asa result, a typical officer’s domicile might be furnished with a sofa, a dining table complete with six chairs, and two library or armchairs, all specifically designed for an itinerant lifestyle. Styles tended to lag slightly behind fashions at home, and pieces were often made in the country in which they were intended for use.

TRAVELLING GAMES TABLE
This early Victorian mahogany table has a top formed from its storage box. The top is marked with rosewood and boxwood veneers for chess and is
supported by a telescopic column on tripod legs. c.1840

The cotton canopy is white to reflect the sunlight.
The column supports are reeded and baluster -turned.
The slatted base is lightweight and can be folded.
The turned legs are on casters so that the bed is easy to move.
CAMPAIGN SECRETAIRE CHEST
Two drawers side-by-side sit below a career,
three-quarter gallery and above the secretaire di v( - of this camphonvood chest, which features brass-bound corners and contains a further lourshort drawers and three long drawers, all with sunk handles. 1835-40.

FRANCE: French 1848-1900 Antique Furniture
IN CONTRAST TO THE reconciliatory stance adopted by Louis-Philippe, Napoleon III sought to align himself firmly with the Classical past as part of his consolidation of power. Designs from the reign of Louis XIV, the Sun King, were appropriated along with forms and decorative motifs from the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI. Napoleon III had promised France glory, and he hoped to provide this at least in part by reminding it of a golden age. There was also a pan-European revival of interest in the Classical and Renaissance periods.
LUXURY AND COMFORT
Dark woods, especially mahogany and ebony, were used in abundance by the cabinet-makers of the time. Newer materials such as cast iron, turned out by foundries all over newly industrialized France, and papier-mache, provided a contemporary twist. Precious materials such as gilt bronze heralded the wealth and status of the owner and loaned visual interest to a piece, as did inlays of ivory and mother-of-pearl, which provided a dramatic contrast to the dark wood. A revival of the intricate veneering and marquetry work as practised by Andre-Charles Boulle in the time of Louis XIV further added to the sumptuous decadence that is a hallmark of Second Empire furniture.
Comfort was a high priority. Upholstery became far more prevalent due to the widespread availability of the
The Salon de Musique This music room at the Chateau de Compiegne has an eclectic mix of 17th-, 18th-, and 19th-century furniture that is typical of interiors of the Second Empire.
coiled spring. Tapissier chairs, named for the richly embroidered upholsteries with which they were covered, became staples of fashionable salons. The
1850s saw the introduction of new forms to the canon of French cabinetmaking, including the round, upholstered ottoman known as the pouffe, which is still in use today. The dos-d-dos and the boudeuse, or courting chair, also date from this period. In such seating, the occupants sat beside each other but facing away from each other, divided by an “S”-shaped seat rail.
ANTIQUARIAN NATIONAL STYLE Architectural elements, such as columns and pediments drawn from Greco-Roman buildings, provided the Classical and Renaissance look that pandered to the Emperor’s desire to root his regime firmly in the glorious past. Egyptian motifs provided a similar link but were the consequence of French archaeologist Marcel Dieulafoy’s keen interest in architecture. Many 19th-century designers were heavily influenced by his studies of excavated Egyptian and Middle-Eastern buildings. All these ingredients combined to produce a national style that became more extreme towards the end of the century, as shown by the kingwood vitrine opposite.
“BOULLE” CABINET
This Louis XIV-inspired cabinet is decorated with premiere-partie boullework on a red tortoiseshell ground. The black, shaped, rectangular marble top has moulded serpentine edges. The conforming front has a frieze above a door, centred with an oval panel and flanked by outset rounded stiles with figural chutes. The shaped skirt is centred with an espagnolette and raised on disc feet.
c.1850.
LOUIS XVI TABLE
Almost an exact copy of an 18th-century piece, this rosewood, marquetry-inlaid, gilt-metal mounted side table has a fitted frieze drawer. The table top is raised on gilt-metal caryatid legs. The legs are joined by a pierced platform stretcher with a bowl at its centre, and stand on spiral, tapered feet. 1880.
TRANSITIONAL-STYLE COMMODE
This kingwood, satinwood, and gilt-metal mounted serpentine commode has a marble top with outset corners. The three long drawers have inlaid panels, each centred by a grotesque mask motif. The capped, splayed legs are joined by a shaped apron and have hoot feet. c.1900.
Gabriel Viardot was an expert woodcarver and was already operating his own business when he took over the reins of the family furniture business in 1861. Records show that in 1885 Viardot employed around 100 men at his premises on Rue Amelot in Paris. I lis renown was such that he was invited to adjudicate at the Expositions Universelles held in Paris. He also submitted his own pieces for exhibition and was the recipient of a series of awards, including a gold medal in 1889. The Viardot name is most closely associated with furniture in the Japanese style, but he also produced Vietnamese stylework – Vietnam was one of Napoleon III’s most prized colonies.
The furniture created by Viardot was solidly constructed, typically from beech or walnut, with decorative motifs drawn from the East. Grotesque masks, very much a feature of mainstream French furniture, were adapted so that they took on an Eastern countenance. Carvings depicting dragons and demons were inspired by Oriental mythology and tradition, and the frequent use of lacquer coating was a direct influence of Chinese style. Viardot’s juxtaposition of European and Eastern forms resulted in the creation of very distinctive pieces that bridged the gap between exotic imports and more prosaic homespun furniture.
The drawers are inlaid with mother-of-pearl.
KINGWOOD VITRINE
The tapering ogee top of this serpentine vitrine has a central cartouche above a pair of glazed doors and sides, enclosing a mirrored interior. Below is a single central door inspired by Louis XV style with a vernis martin bombe panel of lovers.
The carved dragon motif is inspired by Oriental mythology.
The fret decoration is in the Chinese style.
The surface is inset with velvet.
Dressing table This piece is made of stained beechwood with mother-of-pearl inlays. It has an asymmetrical appearance that is Asian-inspired, but it is of European construction. c.1890.
CONVERSATION SEAT
This Louis XV-style giltwood and upholstered conversation seat is covered in a red and gold striped fabric. The piece has a serpentine back with a shell surmount and stands on moulded, cabriole legs. c.1890.

Some of the finest Art Deco furniture was produced in France, where designers reacted against the Art Nouveau style, and were inspired instead by the lines of 18th- and early 19th-century French furniture.
Cabinet-makers such as Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann
1879-1933) created one-off pieces in exotic woods; others were influenced by African and Oriental art,
while from 1925 the machine aesthetic of Modernism gained prominence, with such materials as tubular steel.

TRADITIONALIST DESIGNS
The leading French furniture designer
from c.19 IS to the mid-1920s was
Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann, whose exceptionally fine handmade furniture is an elegantly pared-down version of the Neo-classical and Empire styles, with typical 18th-century features such as tapering, fluted legs. Decorative effect     is provided by exotic wood veneers, sometimes with inlaid ivory, mother-of-pearl, and tortoiseshell. After 1925 Ruhlmann used Modernist materials, such as tubular steel, but continued to work in a traditional style.
Other designers inspired by historical furniture were Louis Sue (1875-1968) and Andre Mare (1887-1932), who in 1919 formed the Compagnie des Arts Francais to produce a range of pieces including chairs, commodes, and desks, typified by massive forms and veneered in exotic woods with carved or inlaid stylized flowers, fruits, and plants. Their designs are heavier in style than Ruhlmann’s, as they favoured adaptations of Louis Philippe furniture of the 1830s and 1840s.
Many leading Paris department stores
had separate studios that provided a complete interior-design service. From 1921 Maurice Dufrene
( 1876-1955) directed La Maitrise, the design studio of Galeries Lafayette, and from 1923 Paul
Follot (1877-1941) was artistic director at Pomone for Au Bon Marche. Follot designed a wide range of  furnishings; urnishings; his furniture, like Ruhlmann`s is based on 18th-century forms, but
is distinguished by giltwood frames and richly coloured, patterned upholstery. Although his designs became more geometric after 1925, Follot continued to prefer wood, gilding, lacquer, and inlay to tubular steel, plastic, or glass.
EXOTIC AND MODERN DESIGNS
The geometric motifs typical of this period were derived from Cubist painting, which itself was influenced by the stylized forms of African masks and sculpture. The
furniture designer Pierre Legrain (1887-1929) took inspiration from African furniture, fashioning traditional designs in Western materials.
The Art Deco taste for Oriental art is evident in the popularity of lacquered furniture, the leading exponents of which were the Swiss-born Jean Dunand (1877-
1942) and the Irish-born Eileen Gray (1879-1976), both active in Paris. Dunand’s early lacquered furniture featured floral designs; his work from the 1920s depicted geometric forms in red-and-black lacquer and sometimes panels of crushed eggshell (coquille d’oeuf). Gray studied lacquering in Paris with the Japanese master Sougawara, and in 1920 she designed a furnished apartment for the milliner Suzanne Talbot, featuring a collection of African-inspired spired pieces. From c.1925, influenced by Modernism, she produced furniture of tubular steel, glass, and aluminium.
The leading designer of Modernist furniture was the architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965). At the 1925 Paris Exhibition he designed the Pavilion de VEsprit Nouveau, a stark, geometric space sparsely furnished with mass-produced items such as bentwood furniture by Thonet. From 1926, with Charlotte Perriand (b.1903) and his brother Pierre Jeanneret, Le Corbusier designed his own functionalist furniture using tubular steel and other “new” materials. These and other Modernist designs have been reproduced since the 1960s by the Italian furniture company Cassina.

Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann
•    FORMS simple, elegant forms    18th-centuryforms
based on 18th-century designs, with a very high standard of workmanshipMATERIALS
•     exotic wood veneers, such as Macassar ebony, amboyna, palisander, and amaranth; ivory inlay
•    COLLECTING all work collectable, and highly priced
Marks
Ruhlmann’s work carries this signature
Compagnie des Arts Francais
•    MATERIALS marble tops, velvet upholstery
Legrain, Dunand, and Le Corbusier
•    FORMS Legrain: African-inspired with angular, stepped features; Dunand: naturalistic floral designs, geometric designs; Le Corbusier: stark, Modernist designs TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS Dunand: lacquering, crushed eggshell; Le Corbusier: tubular steel frames
•    COLLECTING Le Corbusier: modern reproductions
mass-produced by Cassina arc more accessible

Settles and sofas after 1840
The revival of interest in historical styles from the mid-19th century resulted in a multiplicity of designs for all types of furniture, including sofas, which were often made as part of the new salon or parlour suites. A major technical development during this period was use of the coil spring, patented in 1828, which resulted in sturdier, bulkier, and squatter designs that sacrificed form to comfort. These deeply upholstered seats, with their button backs, culminated in the Chesterfield, which was the first fully upholstered sofa.

Seat furniture
The period c. 1860 to (.1880 was in many ways the golden age of upholstery. Stuffing had been growing steadily thicker from the 1840s, and buttons were introduced to prevent the thread holding the stuffing
in place from pulling the covering material. Extra fabric was necessary to create the familiar diamond pattern of buttons or threads characteristic of the deep, luxurious upholstery, with its air of prosperity and comfort, so admired by the Victorian middle classes. The development of the coil spring made increased demands on buttoning. Whereas sofas had previously been stuffed with layers of wadding and horsehair, coiled metal springs were now used. The springs were supported by a layer of hessian webbing, covered with more webbing, which in turn was covered with horsehair stuffing and padding. As a result, Victorian sofas were much more comfortable than early 19th-century examples, but they were also much bulkier; many sofas had button backs to emphasize the new upholstered look. The luxurious effect was emphasized by the use of velvet and other elaborate fabrics. Sofas with their original worn upholstery arc more collectable today than those with high-quality restoration using an inappropriate fabric.
French sofas were generally lighter in design than British examples, since French craftsmen and manufacturers employed such revival styles as Rococo and Louis XVI, making use of giltwood and lighter upholstery fabrics. In the USA, parlour suites on a grand scale were produced by such leading makers as John Henry Belter (1804-63) of New York, who in the 1850s created laminated and moulded rosewood sofas with deep pierced carving. Renaissance Revival suites, with square-backed sofas, were also popular, while the fashion in Europe and the USA for “Turkish” corners gave rise to over-stuffed upholstered sofas with elaborate fringing.
Edwardian sofas of the first two decades of the 20th century borrowed heavily from Neo-classical styles –especially the designs of Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) – and from Regency styles, but managed to avoid the excesses of Victorian interpretations. Suites of chairs with matching sofas were produced; these were generally made from mahogany, or occasionally from walnut or satinwood. Sofas and chairs often had caned backs and sides, with silk or damask upholstery.

•    CHALSES-LONGUES these are not particularly commercial as they can be large and not very comfortable to sit on; examples with good shapes are more popular, as are those that are more heavily carved
•    GILDING good-quality regilding is quite acceptable if well executed– the highlights should be burnished, and the quality of the carving evident; beware of spray gilding – this will have a flat, matt appearance, with a very even coverage
•    RE-UPHOLSTERY the condition of the upholstery should be carefully examined, as seating can be very expensive to re-upholster; furniture with taut webbing is
preferable to that with springing, which tends to give an overstuffed look
•    COLLECTING many sofas and settees were originally part of parlour or salon suites, which are now rarely found complete; three-seater examples are generally more commercial than two-seater