Posts Tagged ‘walnut’

Antique 18th-19th Century Commodes

THE COMMODE EVOLVED slowly during
the late 18th century, only gradually incorporating Neoclassical elements into its design. In its early transitional stage, in the 1760s, its shape retained many Rococo features, such as rounded corners and cabriole legs, but, the
case became more rectangular and the decoration Neoclassical. However, by the 1770s, the shape of commodes had also been refined, as commodes became plainer and more linear in design, with straight legs. Their angular shape was sometimes augmented by the adoption of a breakfront — the result of inset drawers being placed on either side of protruding drawers — a feature that was particularly popular.
By the 1790s, the French commode generally had two or three short frieze drawers with long parallel drawers below them. Columns of term figures, headed by female masks in Classical or Egyptian garb, flanked the drawers. The columns were also often headed by engine-turned, plain, Tuscan, gilt-bronze capitals. Commodes with three
deep drawers on short feet turned like tops were also common.
In the 1770s and 80s, commodes with sumptuous ormolu mounts and pictorial marquetry were still made for royal households, but decoration became more sparing after 1790.
Mounts were rare and plain ring handles and escutcheons, inspired by simple Grecian design, were used. Transitional commodes used satinwood veneer or mahogany but, as designs became more refined, plain, well-figured wood such as mahogany, or fruitwood for provincial pieces, was used with marble tops. Decoration was provided by moulded wood, ebonized columns, and grisaille panels.
In Britain the side cabinet became plainer but was still of good quality. No particular shape was favoured, but some designers were influenced by Egyptian campaigns. Italian designers used walnut, olive, and tulipwood, combining a pictorial frieze drawer with two plain drawers. Geometric marquetry was used to emphasize the commode’s rectangular shape.
The rounded corners of the case Crossbanded veneers and light
are inlaid with three rectangular boxwood string inlays emphasize
panels corresponding to the the edges of the drawers. depths of the drawers.
Lion’s head brass pulls like these became popular towards the end of the 18th century.
hepplewhite COMMODE
This commode has three walnut-veneered drawers. Its skirt is slightly shaped and it has short, cabriole legs with carved toes.
ITALIAN COMMODE
This rectangular walnut commode has three drawers, the top one narrower than the two below. Its drawers have floral marquetry and a central oval inlaid with an architectural scene. Its handles are lion’s head masks with a circular pull held in each lion’s mouth. c.1780.
ENGLISH CHEST OF DRAWERS
This mahogany william and mary chest of drawers is serpentine in shape. It has a moulded edge, four graduated drawers, a moulded plinth, and the piece terminates in four ogee bracket feet. The top drawer of the chest is fitted as a dressing chest. c.1770.
GERMAN COMMODE
This rosewood commode’s rounded, breakfront shape is echoed in the conforming top, which slightly overhangs the case. It has three drawers of equal size with Rococo-style drawer pulls. Its base moulding is shaped and the case stands on small bracket feet. c.1770.
PARISIAN A LA GRECQUE COMMODE
This commode has three drawers, the upper one hidden by an applied ormolu entrelac frieze. Its two lower drawers are covered with a veneer pattern. The four cabriole legs end in feet ornamented with sabots. c.1775.
SWEDISH COMMODE
This breakfront commode, with three small drawers flanking three larger central drawers, is closely related to French styles. This one is slightly heavier, particularly in the canted corners and the marginally tapering legs.
PARISIAN MARBLE-TOPPED COMMODE
This rectangular commode has three drawers, and doors in the central section, flanked by a single door on each side. It has rounded pilasters on the sides that connect with its turned and tapering legs. It has circular escutcheons with swags, and circular pulls.
MILANESE VENEERED COMMODE
This kingwood-veneered commode has three long drawers, a straight apron, and square, almost bracket-shaped legs. Its light, distinctive colour is a result of the inner sapwood of the kingwood being used for the veneer. Its pulls are Neoclassical in design. c.1790.
ITALIAN COMMODE
This rectangular fruitwood commode has three drawers, the upper one narrower than the others, and stands on short, tapering feet. It has a floral inlay, and its central cartouche, outlined in a darker veneer, is inlaid with birds and flowers. c.1780.
SWEDISH COMMODE
This three-drawer commode has a marble top. Its case has canted corners, as do the feet, which taper slightly towards the base. Its side panels and drawers are veneered, and the central drawer has an inlay of musical instruments c.1790.
FRENCH COMMODE
This three-drawer walnut commode has a moulded top over three graduated panelled drawers and a shaped and moulded apron.
Short, scroll feet, each with a block terminus, support the case. It is decorated with pierced, foliate C-scroll escutcheons and handles. The style of this commode is provincial and rather old-fashioned. c.1765. W.139cm (54 ‘ 7). 4
FRENCH VENEERED COMMODE
This commode has a breakfront shape, created by three short drawers inset either side of three protruding long drawers. It has a moulded
white marble top and geometric parquetry veneer, which includes kingwood, tulipwood, and rosewood. The cabriole legs are squared and veneered, and terminate in gilt-metal sabots. c.1770.
FRENCH DEMI-LUNE COMMODE
This mahogany commode has a semicircular, or demi-lune shape. It contains three central drawers, and curved side doors, which open to
reveal shelves. It has a marble top, gilded bronze escutcheons that are Neoclassical in design, and pulls with swags surrounding them. c.1795.

CLOCKS, WATCHES AND BAROMETERS Bracket Clocks
Repeater clock by Edwardus East with signed and engraved
backplatc in cboniscd case 600 0
A three-train musical clock by Moore of Ipswich with eight tunes in ebony case with gilt metal mounts in mid-eightccnth-century style, 2 ft 2 in high 440 0
George III fruitwood clock by Recordon, late Emery, London, with painted dial and frets at side and front of case, 1 ft 2 in high 290 0
George III walnut clock, the dial signed Joseph Smith, Chester,
and of pronounced Continental character, 1 ft 6 in high 210 0
George III ebonised clock, the 7-in dial signed William Smith, with calendar and strike/silent dial. The movement is contained in an inverted bell-topped case, 1 ft 4 in high 190 0
Louis XV contra-boullc clock with enamel dial signed Darmezin, Paris, and movement signed Crepaux, Paris, in cartouche-shaped case, 3 ft 1 in high 190 0
Louis XV Boulle clock by Pcrrache, Paris, with an enamelled dial, the case surmounted by a youthful figure of Jove, richly mounted in ormolu, 2 ft 6 in high 170 0
George III mahogany clock by Massey, Bridge Road, Lambeth, the circular white-painted dial with a central calendar hand, 1 ft 4 in high 140 0
George III mahogany clock, the 7-in circular dial signed Lamb and Webb, London, with calendar and engraved backplate in bell-top case, 1 ft 4 in high 120 0
Mid-eighteenth-century veneered ebony clock signed John Small-wood, Lichfield, with pull quarter repeat, 1 ft 4 in high (later dial) 85 0
George III mahogany clock, the 8-in arched silvered dial signed Gravell and Tolkien, London, with engraved backplate and tic-tac escapement in broken arch-topped case, 1 ft 6 in high 60 0
Regency rosewood clock signed on dial John P. Smith, 1 ft 3 in
high 20 0
Carriage Clocks
Clock in gilt case by James McCabe, London 675 0
Repeating French brass clock with white dial signed Gibson
and Co Ltd, Belfast, 6J in high 68 0
French brass clock with white dial signed Rowel, Oxford, 4Ј in high
Repeating brass clock with white dial and glazed brass case, 5 in high
Gilt metal timepiece, the glazed case with pierced floral frets at the sides and front, 5 in high and with travelling case
Miniature silver-cased repeating clock with white dial. The case stamped J. Keller, 3J in high
Lantern Clocks
Brass clock with engraved copper dial and an alarm disk, 1 ft 1 in high
Late seventeenth-century brass clock, the dial engraved with flowers and with pierced dolphin cresting, 1 ft 3 in high
Longcase Clocks
Late seventeenth-century marquetry clock, the 11-in dial signed Robt. Williamson, London, with calendar aperture in a walnut case inlaid with shaped panels of birds and flowers, with a bullseye in the waist door and with spirally turned columns at the corners, 6 ft 7 in high (frieze of a later date)
Tall mahogany cased clock with chimes. The elaborately foliated brass dial with a silvered chaptered ring. The case inlaid with classic urns in coloured woods, the arched hood has brass spires and the waist has a bevelled glass door
A carved mahogany cased clock with a grotesque satyr mask to the hood over a brass floral scrolled dial. Westminster, Whittington and St Michael chimes, 7 ft 7 in
Mahogany clock made by Manley of Chatham
Eighteenth-century walnut clock with domed canopy and brass face, the movement by William Stapleton, London, 7 ft 4 in high
Walnut clock, the early eighteenth-century movement signed
Andr. Dunlop, London, the 12-in dial with chestnut and
flower spandrels, 7 ft 4 in high Georgian lacquer clock with brass face and striking movement.
The case, with ‘bullseye’ door, decorated with gilt chinoiseries
on a simulated tortoiseshell ground Eighteenth-century small clock by John Lee, Gookham; with
brass dial and foliated spandrels, in a black lacquer case
decorated with chinoiseries in red and gill
Mantel Clocks
An ormolu clock, the painted dial signed F. Linke, Paris, the movement in a glazed case in well chiselled ormolu with drapery, acanthus leaves and groups of fruit and ending in double cloven-hoof feet, 2 ft 11 in high
Bronze and ormolu mounted clock, the movement contained in a drum upon which is seated a Chinaman holding a parasol, the whole on the back of an elephant, 1 ft 4 in high
A French clock, inscribed Bonniere a Clermont, in a rococo porcelain case. The blue and gilt ground painted with musicians, lovers and flowers. On a similar stand
Louis XVI marble and ormolu clock, the striking movement with enamel dial signed Hessen. The arched architectural case with drapery festoon, pineapple finials, an urn and fluted columns, 1 ft 5 in high 110 0
Regency rosewood clock, the movement by Dwerrihouse &
Carter, Davies Street, 2 ft high 70 0
Philippe clock with glass panels in gilt metal case with corinthian columns and surmounted by an urn. Decorated with coloured enamels, 18 in 68 0
An Empire marble clock mounted in ormolu, the movement with outside count-wheel, the dial surmounted by a white marble urn and suspended between fluted columns capped by ormolu pineapples, 1 ft 4 in high 55 0
Watches
Gentleman’s 18-carat gold half-hunter watch 20 0
Early nineteenth-century verge watch by D. Nevern, in a tor-
toiseshell case, the dial enamelled with a wharf-side scene 13 0
Gentlemen’s 18-carat gold pocket watch by George Harvey,
Wellington 13 0
George III verge watch by William Fowler, London, in a silver
case, London 1783 9 0
Nineteenth-century verge watch by Nicoll, Great Portland
Street, in a tortoiscshcll case 7 10
Barometers
Early   Victorian   mahogany  stick   barometer  by  E. Davis,
Shrewsbury, 3 ft 3 in high 70 0
Regency rosewood inlaid with mother-o’-pearl banjo barometer
and thermometer 46 0
George III mahogany banjo barometer and thermometer with engraved scales by A. M. Ortelli, Godalming, the case outlined with fruitwood lines, 3 ft 2 in high 38 0
Georgian mahogany stick barometer and thermometer by Rout-ledge, Carlisle 38 0
Mahogany stick barometer and thermometer by Salmon, Bath 38 0
A Regency rosewood banjo barometer and thermometer by
Aprile Sudbury 34 0
Early nineteenth-century mahogany banjo barometer by Lione and Tarone, London, with a thermometer and the case inlaid with Prince of Wales plumes and a whorl pattern, 3 ft 2 in high 30 0
Early nineteenth-century mahogany banjo barometer by A.
Celti, Reading, the case inlaid with shells, 3 ft 2 in high 22 0
SILVER
(Troy weight: 20 pennyweights [dwt] = 1 ounce [oz])
Baskets for Bread, Cakes, Fruit, Sugar or Sweetmeats George II oval-shaped cake basket on four cherub mask and scroll feet. The sides pierced and engraved with flowers and
scrolls and the base engraved with a coat-of-arms, by Paul
Crespin, 1753, 62 oz 3,600 0
George III oval pedestal cake basket by John Ernes, London,
1804, 24 oz 10 dwt 400 0
George III boat-shaped pedestal sugar basket with engraved border, reeded edge and swivel handle by Peter, Ann and William Bateman, London, 1793, 5 oz 10 dwt 320 0
Victorian oval basket, the pierced panels embossed with beading
and garlands, London, 1895, 19 oz 62 0
Candelabra and Candlesticks
Pair of George I dwarf table candlesticks, the baluster shafts upon square terraced bases by William Darkeratt, 4J in high, London, 1726, 20 oz 1,500 0
Victorian tabic candelabra with two tiers of six scrolled branches issuing from a bold Corinthian column supported on a square terraced foot, with neo-classic rams’ mask and husk swags by R.H. over R.H., London, 1877, 30 in high 355 0
Pair of George III table candlesticks, the tapering baluster shafts upon half-fluted circular bases by John Green & Co, Sheffield, 1800 195 0
George III chamber candlestick and snuffer, the gadrooned edge
witli shell motif by William Cafe, London, 1761, 12 oz 130 0
Casters
Garniture of three George II vase-shaped sugar casters of plain
design by John Delmester, London, 1758, 15 oz 10 dwt 930 0
William IV Scottish baluster caster engraved with a crest above floral decoration on a granulated ground, by Elder & Co, Edinburgh, 1832, 4 oz 7 dwt 90 0
George III baluster caster with pierced cover and wrythen
finial, by Thomas Satchwell, 1780, 2 oz 4 dwt 85 0
George III vase-shaped caster the otherwise plain body engraved with contemporary crest. The mark of George Giles struck over another, 1783, 2 oz 8 dwt 65 0
Coasters—Wine
Set of four partly fluted circular coasters with gadrooned rims and engraved with crests by John & Thomas Settle, Sheffield, 1818 410 0
Pair of George III coasters with pierced waved galleries, London, 1794 270 0
Pair of William IV circular-shaped wine coasters with foliate borders and crested silver bosses to the wood base, by Henry Wilkinson & Co, Sheffield, 1831 150 0
Pair of George III coasters with beaded rims, the pierced sides stamped with arcading, urns and laurel festoons, maker’s mark missing, 1794 100 0
Coffee Pots
George I small plain cylindrical coffee pot with octagonal spout and low domed cover with baluster finial, by Paul De Lamcrie, London, 1725, 11 oz 3 dwt 1,900 0
George II baluster coffee pot, plain with foliate decorated spout, wood handle and hinged domed lid, probable maker Fuller White, London, 1759, 21 oz 1,350 0
Late George III tapering cylindrical coffee pot, the plain body engraved with contemporary armorials and a crest, by Peter, Ann and William Bateman, London, 1802, 35 ox 2 dwt 1,200 0
George IV coffee pot, vase-shaped, with moulded bands at the neck and waist, leaf-capped scroll handle and foliate finial on lid, by Pearce & Burrowes, London, 1826, 22 oz 5 dwt 210 0
Victorian vase-shaped coffee pot engraved with key pattern
decoration, London, 1872, 24 oz 135 0
Cruets
George II five-bottle cruet frame on four shell feet with detachable baluster handle. Five cut-glass silver-mounted bottles. By Jabez Daniel, 1750, 28 oz 7 dwt 105 0
George III cruet frame for six bottles with reeded loop end handles, ring holders, on four feet. Five glass bottles all chipped, one broken. By Henry Chawner, London, 1792 16 0
Cups and Goblets
Elizabeth I secular wine goblet, the bowl decorated with tulips and strapwork motifs, on a slender baluster stem and circular fluted foot, London, 1593, 5 oz 10 dwt 2,000 0
Pair of George III goblets of plain design, probably by William
Sumner, London, 1800, 20 oz 520 0
Pair of George III two-handled pedestal challenge cups and covers with reeded decoration and urn knops, by Samuel Hcnnell, London, 1806, 32 oz 5 dwt 400 0
George III tumbler cup engraved with armorials, gilt interior and the base with contemporary initials. Possibly by John Garter, London, 1766, 2 oz 1 dwt 150 0
Victorian wine cup, the beaker-shaped bowl and pedestal base cast and chased in low relief with grape-laden vine tendrils, by Hunt and Roskell, London, 1875, 10 oz 1 dwt 52 0
Cutlery—Canteens
George III fiddle thread pattern table silver: 24 tablespoons, 36 table forks, 12 dessert spoons, 12 dessert forks, 12 teaspoons, 6 sauce ladles, 2 soup ladles, 1 marrow scoop, majority by Richard Crossley, 1798/1800/1804, 146 oz 9 dwt 750 0
Victorian fiddle pattern table silver: 12 tablespoons, 12 table forks, 12 dessert spoons, 12 dessert forks, 6 teaspoons, 2 salt spoons, by George Angell, London, 1863, 116 oz 14 dwt 260 0
Cutlery—Forks Dessert
Twelve George I  three-pronged  forks with crest, different
makers, 1718, 14 oz 1 dwt 1,500 0
Twelve George IV fiddle pattern forks by James Scott, Dublin,
1822, 15 oz 75 0
Six George III fiddle pattern forks by G.D., London, 1794,
8 oz 14 dwt 65 0
SOME AUCTION ROOM PRICES ! 1968-69
Cutlery—Forks Table
Twelve Queen Anne three-pronged forks engraved with a crest,
by David King, Dublin, 1708/10, 28 oz Four George II three-pronged forks engraved with two crests,
1755, 7 oz 18 dwt Eleven Victorian fiddle shell pattern forks by George Angell,
1857/61, 36 oz 16 dwt
Cutlery—Forks Toasting
George III fork with knopped shaft and scrolled handle, probably by R. Preston, London, circa 1767, 7 oz 10 dwt. 17f in long
George III fork with knopped shaft and scrolled handle by John Deacon, London, circa 1775, 8 oz. 19i in long
Cutlery—Knives
Forty-eight Victorian table knives and twenty-four dessert knives, kings pattern, steel blades by J.A. or T.S., 1884
Twelve eighteenth-century dessert knives, the multi-faceted bloodstone handles with knopped urn finials and mounts engraved, the scimitar blades of steel. Circa 1700, (Some handles cracked)
Cutlery—Ladles
Four George III sauce ladles, crested Old English pattern by
Hester Bateman, 1783, 5 oz 19 dwt Pair of George III sauce ladles with ribbed and punched beaded
bowls, by Michael Keating, Dublin, circa 1780, 2 oz 16 dwt
Cutlery—Spoons Dessert
Nine engraved spoons, seven by William Soame, 1741, two 1748, 12 oz
Ten Hanoverian spoons engraved with crest, 1760, 11 oz 5 dwt Cutlery—Spoons Serving
Pair of George III Old English pattern spoons by Steven Adams,
London, 1772, 5 oz 15 dwt Pair of Victorian spoons by George Angell, 1854, 10 oz 14 dwt
Cutlery—Spoons Table
Six George I Hanoverian pattern spoons with rat-tail bowls
by Charles Jackson, 1723, 11 oz 2 dwt Six George III Old English pattern spoons with contemporary
initials J.G. by Hester Bateman, 1780, 11 oz 17 dwt
Cutlery—Spoons Tea and Coffee
Six William IV ‘bright-cut’ spoons, 1836, 3 oz 7 dwt Eight George IV fiddle shell pattern spoons by J. McKay, Edinburgh, 1827, 4 oz 8 dwt

Globes
Pair of early nineteenth-century mahogany library globes by Newton, published in 1838 and 1836. The tripod frames with out-scrolled legs ending in brass castors, 3 ft 8 in high        780 0
Large pair of terrestrial and celestial globes by Newton; published 25 March 1875. Supported in mahogany frames on triple curving legs 205 0
Pair of terrestrial and celestial globes in turned stands by James
Wyld, Charing Cross East; published 1847 185 0
Knife Boxes
A pair of mahogany urn-shaped knife boxes, stamped W. Johnston, with domed lids and bodies inlaid with flowers and stripes, 2 ft 5 in high 115 0
Sheraton  inlaid  mahogany serpentine-fronted knife box in
original condition 32 0
Mirrors—Mantel
Empire-style giltwood overmantel with triple mirrored panels
and decorated with classical figures 105 0
Rectangular mantel mirror in a giltwood frame carved with
acanthus and shell motifs, 31 in by 25 in 60 0
Mirrors—Toilet or Dressing
Sheraton serpentine-fronted box-frame toilet mirror fitted with
two drawers, 17 in wide 36 0
Sheraton box-frame shield-shape toilet mirror with two drawers,
18 in wide 30 0
Mahogany box-frame toilet mirror with three drawers, 15 in
wide 15 0
Edwardian   mahogany   box-frame   toilet  mirror   with three
drawers to base, 22 in wide 9 0
Mirrors—Wall
Pair of Chinese-Chippendale giltwood girandoles of rococo outline mounted with phoenix-birds and clusters of flowers from which issue two scrolled candle branches. The base enriched with acorns and oak leaves, 38

in high 650 0
Mid-Georgian wall glass in a giltwood frame carved with scrolls
and foliage and pierced, 44 in high 200 0
Chippendale mahogany mirror with gilt gesso beading
George IV convex mirror in a gilt frame enriched with spherical ornament with two scrolled candle sconces. Crested with a gilt eagle with outspread wings 76 0
Regency giltwood convex mirror with ball encrusted moulded
frame and ebonised slip, 1 ft 11 in diameter 15 0
Settees, Couches and Chaise Longues
Small carved mahogany sofa, the arched back carved with
rococo motifs. Curved arms, carved seat rail and cabriole legs        135 0
some auction room prices ‘. 1968-69
Decorated satinwood cane-panelled settee with loose seat
cushion, 4 ft 4 in George III painted settee with flat rectangular back and arms,
on turned legs. The arms, seat rails and legs are painted
with husks and flowers on a cream ground, 6 ft wide Early George III mahogany settee with stuffed back and arms.
The seat rail and legs are carved with blind fret, 5 ft 8 in
wide, (some restoration) Victorian rosewood frame serpentine-fronted chaise longue on
short cabriole legs
Settles
Eighteenth-century oak settle, 5 ft 5 in wide Seventeenth-century panelled oak settle with box seat, 4 ft 6 in wide
Seventeenth-century carved and panelled tall-back hall settle, 5 ft 7 in wide
Sideboards
Small nineteenth-century sideboard inlaid with ebony lines. Raised back, the centre drawer flanked by a cupboard and deep drawer. Supported on six turned and tapering legs, 4 ft 8 in wide
Hepplewhite-style mahogany serpentine sideboard of rich mellow colour, cross-banded in kingwood and fitted with a napery drawer and cellaret cupboards with octagonal gilt metal handles and supported on chamfered

legs, 7 ft 2 in wide
Georgian mahogany half-moon sideboard with two cupboards to the sides and two drawers with lion ring handles in the centre. Four tapering legs, 4 ft wide
Large mahogany Sheraton-style sideboard fitted with two long drawers and flanked by two deep drawers, supported on tapering legs
Regency Empire mahogany sideboard of architectural form, with a reverse breakfront with two shallow drawers to the centre flanked by deep cupboards. Supported by two curved and four simulated bamboo legs

terminating in brass paw feet. The whole mounted with ormolu and brass griffins, lions’ masks and sphinx and with Adams-style garlands and patera, 7 ft 6 in long
Late Georgian mahogany sideboard with shaped front, the top back rail fitted with three tambour slides. Two cupboards and a centre drawer to the base over a waved apron. Supported on six slender tapering legs, 5 ft

7 in wide
Early nineteenth-century mahogany bow-front sideboard on spiral-turned legs, 6 ft 1 in wide
Tables—Break fast
Regency mahogany breakfast table with brass stringing on the banded top and a turned pillar ending in a reeded quadruped, 5 ft by 3 ft 5 in
Georgian mahogany oval breakfast table with reeded edge and
Tables—Card
Chippendale mahogany card table with shaped folding top on boldly carved cabriole legs ending in claw and ball feet, 2 ft 7 in wide 370 0
Late George II mahogany card table with border of carved flowerheads and legs and frieze carved with blind fret, 3 ft wide 250 0
Regency card table in figured rosewood inlaid with brass flowers and leaves, the D-top on a ringed stem and quadruple brass capped legs, 3 ft wide 190 0
Sheraton mahogany card table inlaid with satinwood lines and
on tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 180 0
George II walnut card table with rectangular top on turned legs
with mantled knees and club feet, 3 ft wide 95 0
Regency mahogany card table with green baize interior on curving quadruple support, ending in brass claw feet. The top is cross-banded 65 0
Victorian mahogany card table with double Sap top supported
on four tapering shafts, terminating in curved legs 44 0
Tables—Centre
Regency painted centre tabic, the circular top simulating green marble, the border with brass mouldings hinged to a carved turned central support on a curved triangular base with lion’s paw feet, 4 ft diameter 120 0
Edwards and Roberts eboniscd centre table with ormolu beading on cluster column and quadruple base, 5 ft 6 in wide 38 0
Red Buhl shaped centre table with heavy ormolu mounts, two
drawers and on cabriole legs. (Poor condition) 11 0
Tables—Dining
Charles I oak dining table with a triple-plank top and the frieze carved with leaves and interlaced arcading, on column legs, 6 ft 5 in long by 2 ft 7 in wide 360 0
Large late George III mahogany dining table, the top richly carved with acanthus, ribbon motifs, satyr masks and a coat of arms. Supported on ten tapering spiral-twist legs with five loose leaves, 12 ft 4 in long 185 0
Georgian mahogany two pillar dining table with triple curving
legs ending in brass-capped feet 122 0
Georgian mahogany oval drop-leaf dining table on turned legs
and pad feet 75 0
Eighteenth-century mahogany oval drop-leaf cottage dining table
on taper legs with pad feet, 3 ft 6 in wide 44 0
Mahogany gadrooned oval dining table with cabriole legs and
claw and ball feet 40 0
Georgian mahogany drum library table with leather top and four real and four dummy drawers. On triple curving legs with brass-capped feet, 3 ft 3 in diameter 680 0
some auction room prices : 1968-69
George III mahogany library table fitted with seven drawers and dummy drawers with gilt metal lion ring handles, the top with gilt tooled green leather and the whole raised on a curved quadruple support with

brass-capped feet
Tables—Games and Sewing
Eighteenth-century mahogany, shaped folding top, games table on nutcracker frame with cabriole legs and claw and ball feet, 34 in wide
William IV games table with sliding and reversible top inlaid as a chess board opening to reveal a backgammon board with two drawers to the side. Central pillar supported on quadruple curving feet
Nineteenth-century mahogany sewing table with rising top and drawers below. The slender tapering legs ending in brass-capped feet
Tables—Gate-leg
George I elmwood gate-leg table, the oval top with flaps on
cabriole legs carved with scrolls and leaves and ending in
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 9 in wide Seventeenth-century oak oval gate-leg dining table with double
flaps supported on bobbin turned legs with plain cross
stretchers, 4 ft 9 in wide Late George II mahogany gate-leg table, the oval top with two
flaps, on unusual legs fluted and ending in paw feet, 3 ft 9 in
wide
Oak oval gate-leg table on turned underframe with drawer, 4 ft wide
Tables—Occasional
Late George II mahogany piecrust table with bird-cage support on fluted stem with carved legs and claw and ball feet, 2 ft 2 in diameter
Large mahogany piecrust tripod table with baluster stem and
pointed pad feet, 3 ft 5 in diameter Mahogany tripod table, the circular top with raised rim, on
cabriole feet, 1 ft 10 in diameter
Tables—Pembroke
Late Georgian mahogany oval Pembroke table with drawer, on
square tapering legs, 2 ft 7 in wide by 3 ft 6 in long Late Georgian mahogany Pembroke table painted with a floral
border and on turned and fluted legs Georgian mahogany Pembroke table with folding flaps and
single drawer, inlaid with satinwood lines and fan motifs, on
tapering legs, 3 ft 2 in wide
Tables—Refectory
Seventeenth-century oak refectory table of slender plain form, the base having square ends united by a single stretcher, 7 ft 3 in long
Oak refectory table on bulbous end supports with central
stretcher, 7 ft 7 in by 3 ft wide 130 0
An exceptionally long oak refectory table with triple curving
supports, 18 ft 6 in long, 3 ft 3 in wide 90 0
Tables—Side
Queen Anne banded walnut side table with two deep and two
shallow drawers on square legs, 3 ft 3 in wide 170 0
Chinese-Chippendale mahogany side table, the frieze carved with
blind fret. Moulded legs, 3 ft wide 88 0
Oak side table with drawer, on turned legs, 3 ft wide 64 0
Walnutwood side table with cabriole legs carved with acanthus
leaves 31 0
Tables—Sofa
George III satinwood sofa table cross-banded with acacia, fitted with two drawers and false drawers opposite on trestle supports with splayed curved feet and brass castors, 2 ft 10 in wide        750 0
Regency banded mahogany sofa table with tulipwood stringing with two drawers on end supports and central stretcher with brass claw feet, 5 ft 10 in extended 380 0
Late George III mahogany sofa table with two drawers in frieze and raised on flat trestle supports with out-curved legs, 3 ft 2 in wide 270 0
George III mahogany sofa table banded in rosewood and with two drawers. It has trestle supports with tripod splayed legs and brass feet, 3 ft wide 250 0
Tables—Sutherland
Mahogany Sutherland table on turned underframe, 2 ft 9 in
wide 42 0
Victorian walnut-veneered Sutherland table on turned supports,
2 ft 6 in wide 36 0
Tables—Tea
Regency mahogany tea table with folding top on a turned pillar and four curved legs, the whole inlaid with brass stringing, 3 ft wide 120 0
Late George II mahogany tea table, the top with a border of flowerheads and ribbon and the frieze and chamfered legs carved with Chinese blind fret, 3 ft wide 60 0
George III mahogany tea table with folding top, a drawer in
the frieze and square tapering legs, 3 ft 8 in wide 38 0
Tables—Wine
Hepplewhite mahogany wine table, the inlaid octagonal top
supported on triple concave curving legs 105 0
Victorian mahogany wine table on pillar and tripod base, 21 in
diameter 10 0
Tables—Writing
George III mahogany pedestal writing table, the gilt tooled leather top with three drawers at each side of the frieze and
the pedestals with cupboards and drawers at either end, 4 ft wide
Early eighteenth-century banded fruitwood writing table, fitted
with three drawers, a shaped apron and on cabriole legs with
pad feet, 2 ft 4 in wide Victorian lady’s mahogany writing table with two short drawers
on lyre end supports, 3 ft wide Carved mahogany writing table with fitted drawer, the top lined
with leather, on cabriole legs, 2 ft 5 in wide
Tallboys and Lowboys
George II walnut tallboy, the top with reeded and canted corners and three small and three long drawers. The base having three long drawers and bracket feet
Queen Anne small walnut tallboy of mellow colour, the upper chest fitted with two small and three long drawers over a brushing slide, and three long graduated drawers
William and Mary lowboy inlaid with scrolls and motifs. The top fitted with two small and two long drawers and two long drawers to the base, 4 ft 3 in high
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice and two small and three long drawers to the top and tliree long drawers to the base which is supported on bracket feet
Georgian mahogany tallboy with dentil cornice, the top fitted with two small and three long drawers, the base with three long drawers and supported on bracket feet, 6 ft 1 in high
Waiters
Mid-Georgian mahogany dumb waiter with turned and carved columns supporting three trays. The whole on cabriole tripod feet, 4 ft high
George III mahogany dumb waiter with two revolving tiers and baluster centre on three curved and moulded legs and castor feet applied with roundels, 3 ft 2 in high
George II mahogany dumb waiter with three graduated revolving tiers and spiral fluting on turned central support. Plain cabriole legs, 3 ft 6 in high
Wardrobes
Mahogany breakfront wardrobe fitted with sliding trays, four
drawers and panelled cupboards Small Georgian mahogany wardrobe enclosed by two panelled
doors with three drawers in the base, 3 ft 9 in wide George III mahogany gents wardrobe with pierced swan-neck
cresting, a pair of doors banded in satinwood and two short
and two long drawers below, 7 ft high by 4 ft 4 in wide Regency mahogany wardrobe the upper part with sliding trays
with four drawers under on splay feet, 3 ft 11 in wide
Washstands
Late George III mahogany washstand, the top hinged and opening to form a back, the front with a pair of cupboard doors above one small drawer, on square splayed legs, 2 ft wide
Edwardian three-tier corner washstand with basin 18 0 George III mahogany corner washstand, the slender legs joined
by a stretcher with a drawer, 2 ft wide                                      14 0
Wine Coolers
Georgian inlaid mahogany sarcophagus wine cooler with lion
mask and ring handle on paw feet 65 0
Georgian mahogany octagonal wine cooler with lifting top and
short square moulded legs, 18 in wide 55 0

THE TRIUMPH OF THE GIRANDOLE
The other most characteristic form of earring of the i 8th century was the girandole, which was fashionable throughout the whole of Europe. In the early
j 8th century it tended to have a horizontal shape, the three drops more or less of the same size and at the same level, and the central motif clearly defined and simple in design. Later it became more vertical in emphasis with a longer and larger central drop and a more elaborate central motif.
Above and opposite right: Late i 8th-century girandole earrings from Spain, set with emeralds and diamonds, a characteristic feature of Spanish jewellery. The elaborate central motif combines leaves and spray of flowers.
Centre top: French, circa I 76os, set with foiled rubies and diamonds, the drops and the central motif articulated. The combination of rubies and diamonds and the elaborate bow motif place it in the second half of the century.
Middle: English, second half of the T 8th century, set with foiled garnets. Note the rather stiff design and the clearly defined ribbon motif. The colour of the garnets is enhanced by bright pink foiling.
Bottom: Portuguese, circa 1750, set with foiled topazes. The choice of the gemstones — topazes from Brazil, then a colony of Portugal — and the linear and flat design are typical of Portuguese jewellery.
THE ELEGANT PENDELOQUE
A collection of late i 8th-century silver and diamond pendeloque earrings. These examples show some of the many variations of the pendeloque design, from the cluster, ribbon bow and pear-shaped drop (right and opposite above) to the articulated and elaborate swing centre (centre and opposite below). Note the use of silver as setting metal to complement the whiteness of diamonds. As is normal at this time, all gemstones are mounted in closed settings.
IBERIAN STYLE
Right: A gold and hessonite garnet earring, Catalan, probably early i 9th century. The striking design is a development of the traditional pendeloque design with a cluster surmount, an elaborate floral spray centre and an elongated pear-shaped drop. Many examples are extremely long and heavy, requiring special mounts to support their weight.
Opposite right: A collection of i 8th- and i 9th-century gold earrings, Portuguese and Spanish. These earrings exemplify the persistence, in the Iberian peninsula, of the pendeloque motif based on
surmount, ribbon bow and elongated drop. The great variety of design includes the traditional pendeloque conceived as a cluster surmount set with emeralds or rose diamonds supporting a bow and a pear-shaped drop; the ‘Brincos a Rainha’ with its wide, almost circular, drop with swing centre, entirely pierced in high carat gold; the elongated spindle-shaped earrings chased in gold with scroll motifs known as ‘Fuso’, and the bow pendants (centre of page).
Detail of a portrait of Mary, Countess of Macclesfield, by Francis Coates, exhibited at the Society of Artists in 1763 and much admired by Horace Walpole. The Countess is wearing fashionable diamond girandole earrings.
REFINEMENTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
Opposite far left: A Portuguese silver and white topaz earring of girandole design, first half of the i 8th century, and (below) front and back view of a diamond girandole earring mounted in silver. The back view shows three typical features of the girandole: the closed setting of the stones; the articulated and detachable drops that allow the earring to be worn in a reduced form; and the additional hoop, through which a ribbon was threaded and secured to the hair.
This page:
Illustrations from 18th-century literature on earrings. Top: An extract from the ‘Discours Preliminaire’ of the Recueil des Dessins by A. Duflos, 1744, where the author expresses his concern about the excessive weight and elaborate design of girandole earrings. Above, left to right: French engraved designs of two girandole earrings and one pendeloque earring by F. LeFebvre (active circa 1635-57); a page of French engraved designs for six girandoles by Pouget, 1762; six engraved designs for pendeloques and girandoles by J. Quien, 1710, published posthumously in London in 1762; and two designs for a two-stone or double-cluster earring, by Duflos, 1744, a fashionable form that cannot be classified as either girandole or pendeloque.
Centre left: A page of French designs by Maria,
175 1-70, engraved by Babel, illustrating fashionable pendeloques and girandoles.
Below left: Four engraved designs for pendeloque and girandole earrings, by an anonymous Italian, circa 1770.
THE PENDELOQUE: Centre right: An unusual and colourful pair of earrings, late T 8th century, set with
THEME AND VARIATIONS cornelian plaques within diamond borders.
Right: A pair of diamond pendent earrings, Russian, mid-i 8th century. The interest in large cushion-shaped brilliant-cut diamonds mounted in closed silver settings is a typical i 8th-century feature.
Opposite: Four pairs of pendeloque earrings mounted in silver or gold and silver with colourless gemstones such as white topazes and rock crystal.
Opposite far right: A pair of diamond pendeloque earrings, English, late i 8th century. Note the large rose diamonds in silver closed settings and the rather severe design typical of many English creations of the time. And (bottom far right) a pair of topaz pendeloque earrings and a matching devant de corsage, Portuguese, mid-i 8th century, interesting for its combination of light yellow and foiled orange stones.
Below: A collection of English diamond jewellery, late i 8th century, comprising typical pendeloque earrings and a flowerhead dress ornament.
OUT OF THE MAINSTREAM
Below: A mid i 9th-century portrait by Joaquin Argasot y Juan of a Spanish lady wearing a pair of large gold and gem-set earrings of girandole inspiration, proving how long earrings of this type continued to be popular in the Iberian Peninsula. Their size explains why additional fittings were required.
Right: Silver and rose diamond pendeloque earrings, probably Flemish; and gold Iberian earrings set with topazes, of modified girandole design, similar to those in the portrait above.
Opposite, top left to bottom right: Gold and gem-set Spanish earrings, a variation of the Catalan type but with a much more slender outline; Catalan earrings; gold Iberian earrings set with emeralds; and garnet Catalan earrings. All on this page late i 8th/early i 9th century.
PEARLS, GEMS AND GLASS
Below: A pair of seed pearl and ruby girandole earrings, Southern Italian, mid-18th century. The use of minute seed pearls threaded on a filigree structure is a typical feature of many Southern Italian and Adriatic jewels of low intrinsic value. Even so the design presents the most typical features of the girandole: cluster surmount, bow and detachable drops.
Opposite: A pair of gilt-metal and glass girandole earrings, probably Italian mid- i 8th century, using copper coloured aventurine glass with gold spangles cut and faceted as if it were a precious stone. Glass paste of various colours was frequently cut and set in i 8th= centuryday jewellery, and even aristocratic ladies who owned precious jewels did not disdain to wear it. The smaller pictures show two pairs of Iberian earrings set respectively with rose diamonds and emeralds, late i 8th century. One is modelled on the traditional girandole, the other on the pendeloque form, which in this region retained their popularity well into the 19th century.
A pair of spectacular Southern Italian gold and seed pearl pendent earrings, late i 8th century. Although this particular type seems to be confined to Southern Italy and the Adriatic regions, its structure conforms to the contemporary pendeloque design. The use of seed pearls had been a typical feature of jewels of this area since the I 7th century, providing an extremely successful and decorative alternative to jewels set with precious gemstones.

Wall, Long Case and Table Clocks
Early domestic clocks—the development of the “grandfather” or long case clock—characteristics of case design—some famous makers —telling the age by dial and hands—introduction of white dials—effects of the Industrial Revolution—provincial clockmakers and cottage craftsmen.
The domestic clock was an exceptionally rare possession in the 16th century. It would be reasonable to say that before the Tudor monarchy it was unheard of in the English house. In the painting of Sir Thomas More’s family by Holbein, referred to earlier in the book, there is a clock to be seen hanging on the wall next to the dressoir. It is a Gothic clock of probably German origin and was the forerunner of the smaller brass lantern clock which was made only rarely in the British Isles towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth 1.
These early clocks were always weight driven, never went for more than 30 hours and were made to hang upon the wall. They were provided with a wrought-iron ring for suspending from a hook and two spurs at the lower part of the back of the clock to keep it in an upright position. The movements, sometimes referred to as the “works”, were governed by a balance wheel escapement, as the principle of the pendulum was not applied to clock mechanism until the middle of the 17th century.
Another type of clock which was produced in early times was the brass table clock and this also was an importation from the continent. It was constructed in the form of a square or round box, standing on small feet, the dial situated on the top in a horizontal position like a sun-dial. Consequently it was not possible to ascertain the time from a distance. The table clock was spring driven and while a few English examples were made during the 17th and 18th centuries, production ceased around 1770, apart from those later developed as chronometers.
Clocks in wooden cases, which are really the only kind to be included under the heading of furniture, did not appear until the Restoration, either as mantel clocks or in the form usually referred to as “grandfather”. Hitherto, clocks had not been very accurate time-keepers and were often as much as an hour fast or slow in a day. It was the adaptation for clockwork of Galileo’s invention of the pendulum by a Dutch scientist named Huygens in 1657 which allowed a considerable improvement in time recording to be made. This coincided with the introduction of wooden clock cases.
A young Londoner, John Fromanteel, had been apprenticed to a Dutch clockmaker at The Hague about this time. He learned the secret of making pendulum clocks and brought it back to England in 1658. The new controlling mechanism was known as a verge escapement and the pendulum used was quite short, being about 7 inches in length.
It was shortly after 1660 that the first grandfather clocks appeared in this country. The term “grandfather” is really of late Victorian origin and they were always referred to during the 17th and 18th centuries as long case clocks. Some writers on British horology have attempted to trace the development of the long case clock from the brass lantern type. It is true that after 1660 many lantern clocks were covered over with a wooden hood which had a glazed front. This hood was fitted to a bracket upon which the clock stood and the driving weight hung down on a rope below the movement. Presumably the hood was introduced to keep dust away from the mechanism.
The possibility of damage to the clock by clumsy servants, children or domestic animals interfering with the hanging weight would have been a good reason for its enclosure in a long wooden case. In this way the shape of the long case clock could have been developed. However, it is now well known that hooded and long case clocks both appeared at about the same time and, including the lantern clock, all three types continued in production until quite late in the 18th century. Long case clocks, of course, were made until the middle of Victoria’s reign and a few are still produced at the present day.
Mantel clocks appeared on the scene very shortly after the long case type. They were first known as table or bracket clocks, being designed to stand on a side table or wall bracket. It is seldom that a clock is found today with its original wall bracket. When people acquire these early table clocks they often stand them on a mantelpiece where they look far too big and out of place. It was only after the middle of the 18th century that smaller models were made expressly for the mantelshelf. Early table clocks had square brass dials and were housed in ebony veneered cases while those of the early 18th century had the arch dials of the period and walnut and mahogany were used for the cases.
The first long case clocks were of a very attractive size being quite small compared with those produced 150 years later. Because the pendulum was short and did not extend down into the case, the latter could be made comparatively narrow, often as little as 9 inches in width and very seldom over 6 feet in height. The more expensive clocks had ebony veneered cases and the hoods were designed in a pleasingly plain architectural style, usually with some gilded brass ornaments attached to the pediment and hood framework. The base was surrounded by a simple plinth. These very early long case clocks are exceedingly rare and when they do appear on sale the price is usually in the neighbourhood of £1,000.
During the next 30 years some important changes took place in long case design. Around 1670 a longer pendulum was introduced with a beat of one second. This was a purely English invention and was to revolutionise methods of accurate time-keeping. As the new 39-inch pendulum had an extended swing a slightly wider and taller case became necessary. By 1690 long case clocks had an average height of just under 7 feet and the width varied between 10 and 11 inches. The ebony veneered or ebonised pine cases of the earlier period must have appeared rather sombre when the clocks increased in size because the more colourful burr walnut veneer and flower marquetry cases had displaced them by the end of the century. The pediment on the clock hood was replaced with a carved cresting, pegged into the front edge of the flat top. This is rarely present nowadays as, being easily detached, it was liable to be mislaid during a removal of furniture. The hood, which hitherto had been constructed with a glass panel in front and which had to be lifted upwards when access to the hands was required, now had a glazed door fitted instead.
It also became the practice at this time to insert a little circular or oval window, known as a lenticle, in the door of the long case at the height of the pendulum bob. This was intended to show to an observer across the room that the clock was in motion. The gleam of the brass bob as it swung backwards and forwards could be seen clearly from a distance. Originally the lenticle was made of plain glass but in many cases this has been replaced with a piece of thick green glass commonly known as a bull’s eye.
Other features of long case clocks at the end of the Restoration were spiral twist pillars fitted to the edges of the hood door and a wide ovolo moulding placed immedia-tely below the hood. By 1710 this had been altered to a cavetto shape and the use of the ovolo moulding was never revived. Except in a few instances of country manufacture the small bull’s eye windows also became obsolete at about the same time.
Around 1720 long case clocks began to appear with dials surmounted by an arch. This necessitated a taller hood and the case was made higher still by the addition of a moulded or cushion top. The arch of the hood door was matched by a rounded top similar to the trunk door which hitherto had always been rectangular in shape. Cases were also becoming wider and 12 or 13 inches was not an uncommon size. Pillars were still attached to the hood doors but were no longer in the form of spiral twists, being usually plain or fluted columns with brass bases and capitals. During the next 80 years pillars ceased to be placed on the doors but remained free-standing on either side of the hood. A characteristic of Scottish clocks was the retention of the spiral twist pillars in a rather attenuated form until nearly the end of the century.
By 1765 clock cases had reached a height of 7 feet 6 inches or thereabout and had an average width of 14 inches. Mahogany was in general use and the long veneered case doors were often finely figured. While simple wainscot oak versions of the more elaborately veneered London clocks had always been made in the provinces many were now being made in the counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire which were cross-banded with mahogany.
London clocks still maintained a pre-eminence in good design during the latter half of the 18th century but many of the more northerly types were becoming very large indeed. Along with the other pieces of furniture whose design was affected by architectural influences, the broken pediment on the hood was introduced and this in turn developed into the swan-neck pediment. In some cases towards the end of the century the swan-necks became so debased in shape as to appear just like a pair of horns or ears protruding from the top of the hood.
During the early years of the 19th century some rather clumsy long case clocks were being made in the industrial north. Sometimes double sets of pillars appeared on either side of the hood and these on occasion lost any semblance of their architectural origin, becoming merely uninteresting turned spindles. The trunk door had gradually dwindled in size to a small, almost square trap, looking for all the world like the door of a small food larder. As a matter of fact, I have seen very attractive looking small cocktail cabinets, made to hang on the wall, which had been produced from the centre part of the trunks of these large clocks. The craftsmanship of early 19th-century cases was of the highest order but the overall design, generally speaking, was in very poor taste. Such clocks were portents of those monstrosities in furniture design which the Victorians, on occasion, were later to perpetrate.
One of the many interesting characteristics of the long case clocks was that in nearly every instance the name of the maker and place of manufacture were engraved upon the dial. Only in very few examples are clocks found to be anonymous. The earliest of the British clockmakers of whom records are known were probably Nicholas Vallin and Bartholomew Newsam who worked in London towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth 1. When James I came from Scotland to become king of England he brought with him a Scottish clockmaker, David Ramsay. The latter was a great clockmaker and became the first Master of the Clockmakers Company which was founded in 1631, during the reign of Charles I. The Stuart kings were all clock lovers and it was largely due to the enthusiasm of Charles II and his great interest in scientific matters that clock-making in England by the end of the 17th century had become pre-eminent in all Europe. All the makers already mentioned, however, were producers of metal clocks and preceded the era of the clocks in wooden cases.
Ahasuerus Fromanteel, a relation of that John who introduced the pendulum into British clockmaking, was one of the first names to appear on the dial of a long case clock. He was followed during the next 40 years by such famous makers as Edward East, Henry Jones, Thomas Tompion, Joseph Knibb, Daniel Quare and Joseph Windmills. The last I include in this list of the immortals for two reasons. In the first place, he is credited with the introduction of the arch dial in clock design during the first quarter of the 18th century and secondly, I am fortunate to possess a clock in a bird and flower marquetry case of around 1690 made by Joseph Windmills. He was made a member of the Clockmakers Company in 1671, the same year in which Tompion was elected, was Master in 1703 and retired or died in 1740.
There are several sources of information giving details of the early clockmakers such as G. H. Baillie’s Watchmakers and Clockmakers of the World; F. J. Britten’s Old Clocks and Watches and their Makers (Revised 7th Edition); John Smith’s Old Scottish Clockmakers and Iorwith Peate’s Clock and Watch Makers in Wales. So far there has not been a book written on the Irish makers but many of their names are included in Baillie and Britten.
While the general shape of antique clock cases will give an approximate idea of the period in which they were made it must be remembered that, as with all the furniture styles, what was fashionable in London for a decade continued to be produced in the provinces for another 20 or 30 years in many instances. The details of clock dials and hands, however, give a much closer date approximation.
Early dials were seldom more than 9 inches square but by 1775, 14 inches was not an uncommon size. Until the last quarter of the 18th century all dials had a chapter ring, which bears the hour numerals, and ornamental corner spandrels attached to the dial as separate items. Roman numerals were always used for the hours until after 1800 and above them were engraved Arabic figures. In the 17th century the Arabic numerals were about -51th of the size of the Roman but they were gradually enlarged so that by 1770 they were often irds of the size of the latter.
The spandrels were cast in brass and in early clocks were finely chased and gilded. Between 1670 and 1680 a finely modelled but simple cupid’s head was fashionable. By 1690 further decorative motifs were added to this pattern and around 1700 the cupid head design was replaced by a bearded mask or a maiden’s head surrounded by still more elaborate decoration. A theme of flowers in a vase with seashells was popular about 1740 and during the 1770’s the spandrels evolved into an arrangement of rococo arabesques without any realistic representation. In the north about this time there was a revival of the cupid head spandrel but it was much larger than the 17th-century version and appears rather crude when compared with the much finer castings of a hundred years previously.
All domestic clocks before 1660 had only one hand which told the hours and the quarters. More detailed time recording was not considered necessary in those far off and less complicated days. A minute hand was added to some movements early in the Restoration period and a second hand, called a second minute hand, about 1675. In the provinces, nevertheless, country clocks of 30 hours going duration and with only one hand continued in production even as late as 1780 or thereabouts. There seems to have been a dislike for change among the country people who preferred the older and simpler method of time-keeping.
This fact has proved very misleading to many clock owners who think that because a clock has only one hand it must be of an earlier date than 1700 at least.
White dials for long case clocks did not appear before 1775. The earliest were made of fine enamel but these are rare and very soon they were being produced with a painted front. Apart from being much cheaper to manufacture than the engraved brass dial there was the important fact that it was much easier to tell the time from a white dial. The engraving of brass dials towards the end of the 18th century had tended to be much too elaborate and what with hour, minute, centre-second hands and often a calendar indicator all pivoted at the dial centre plus a mass of engraving and over-elaborate spandrels, it became virtually impossible to ascertain the time unless one was standing very close to the clock. White dials for bracket clocks were introduced at the same time as those for the long case variety. In fact, the characteristics of hands, spandrels, chapter rings, etc, followed the same pattern for both types of clock.
The early years of the Industrial Revolution had a considerable effect on the production of clock dials and movements. Although the distribution of goods was still a very slow and arduous matter in the late 18th century, the pack-horse was capable of transporting clock dials, trains of wheels and most of the parts which went to make up a clock movement, to the most out-of-the-way villages in the country. For this reason there exists a marked similarity between late Georgian clocks although they may have been made over quite a large area of the country. The country clockmaker had, in fact, become a mere assembler of parts and no longer constructed the entire clock by hand in his own workshop as he had done earlier in the century.
A feature of 18th-century clockmaking was the very considerable amount of repetition work which was per-formed in the cottage homes of specialist craftsmen such as the clock-hand maker. In many cases their wives and children assisted in the work. Chains for fusee movements, the filing and gilding of spandrels after casting, the engraving of dials and many other particular processes were performed on a small bench at home and taken weekly to the master-clockmaker, who with his assistants would asaemble the movement.
The wooden long cases and also those for the bracket clocks were not made by the clockmaker but by an outside craftsman who specialised in the work. Thus it is that in some instances clocks made by well-known contemporaries like Tompion, Quare, Knibb and Windmills are found in cases which have identical marquetry designs and other features which indicate that they must have originated in the same workshops. Cases for country clocks were usually made by local joiners and like other examples of country-made furniture exhibit a certain naivety in their appearance.

Like Romanesque furniture, Gothic furniture was decorated by means of carving and painting. The rails and stiles of the panels were often cut in the form of mouldings, and the panels themselves were usually carved. The motifs of the carving were those of the Romanesque style, except for the Gothic character of the tracery and the addition of the linen-fold motif and animal and foliage themes. The Gothic style of the first half of the fifteenth century, under Charles VII, was called ‘flamboyant’, because the carved tracery looked like flames.
RENAISSANCE (1500-1650)
Renaissance—rebirth—is a term used to cover the wide changes that occurred in medieval Europe during the fifteenth century, when the pace of life began to grow quicker. (The invention of printing about 1440 was one expression of this revival of energy.) Medieval Europe had for some time been undergoing changes—the oppressive power of the Church had
Two French Gothic panels
already been questioned, for instance. But it was in the middle of the century that the changes became obvious and manifested themselves in many sides of life.
The ideals of the Holy Roman Empire and the medieval church had become too narrow for the general enlargement of life that was gradually taking place. New ambitions were form-
Renaissance Carved Details
Figure
Palm
Acanthus leaf    Table support (griffin and Corinthian column)
ing, and there was an increased self-confidence in people. The
study of ancient Greek and Roman authors provided a more
sympathetic background of ideas than the teachings of the
churchmen. The new spirit showed itself in expanding activity,
and in a growing dissatisfaction with absolute monarchy, feudal restrictions and the impositions of the Church.
People were trying to free themselves from the influence that
Renaissance Carved Details
Cartridge
Rose of acanthus leaves
Ribbon
the Church exercised over all the activities of life, and their
Gothic furniture, looking like small pieces of church, was a
constant reminder of ecclesiastical domination. Furniture-
makers sought to create a new style. The appearance of the new
furniture was suggested by surviving fragments of Greek and Roman architecture. Furniture-makers were accustomed to modelling their work on architectural ideas, but the supply of Greek and Roman examples was limited—in France more so than in Italy. They therefore went on constructing their furniture in the conventional Gothic way, superimposing on the Gothic framework, however, Roman arches, Greek pilasters, and acanthus leaves. They combined the three Greek orders of architecture, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (as the Romans had done), and from the combination developed their own style. The rarity of the examples of genuine classical architecture, and the complete lack of examples of classical furniture, left the Renaissance designers free to invent for themselves—which they did energetically and profusely.
Early Renaissance furniture, of the time of Louis XII, was still made principally of oak; for the method used in its construction was the same as that used for Gothic furniture, and oak was the wood best suited to this method. But the carved motifs of the Renaissance—the acanthus leaves, the curious images called ‘grotesques’, the figures out of classical legends—required a smoother workmanship than is easily possible in oak; and so walnut became popular, being closer-grained, as the style developed.
In the first half of the sixteenth century, Francis I started a school of arts and crafts at Fontainebleau. He imported Italian artists, architects, designers, and craftsmen and installed them there, to train the Frenchmen. The school of Fontainebleau was a great commercial success; it was through its productions that Paris first acquired renown as an artistic centre. But Fontainebleau had a disastrous influence on the development of French furniture styles. It was as if the king had said: ‘Take these foreigners as your masters and try to surpass them. Found a great French school of design, that will easily triumph over all foreign competition.’ As a result, French designers grew over-fastidious in matters of style; and in all French furniture since Fontainebleau there has been more thought for stylishness of effect than for genuine beauty of design.
The masters of Fontainebleau published engravings of build-ings, and furniture designers everywhere became more accurate in their use of classical models. The later Renaissance furniture, of the second half of the sixteenth century, in the reign of Henri II, shows the influence of these engravings. Furniture was made in imitation of classical buildings. Cupboards, for instance, were usually surmounted by a classical pediment, and tables were held up by Ionic or Corinthian columns. This does not mean that there was yet any change in the method of structure. The joiners still made the furniture; and, although it was more elaborate, the joints were still of the same type, except that they were now sometimes glued.
During the second half of the sixteenth century, life in France became less disturbed than it had been during the Middle Ages. There were frequent wars and fights between lords, but a more stable domestic life was possible. The kind of furniture we use today began to be made in this period. Medieval tables, apart from a few examples in monasteries, were composed of boards laid on trestles : tables of the second half of the sixteenth century are permanent tables. At this time chairs with arms were first made, and cabinets, and cupboards composed of two parts, one placed on top of the other—called armoires a deux corps. The cabinet was a small cupboard with two doors behind which were rows of very small drawers. Cabinets were originally placed on small tables, but later they often formed the top half of an armoire d deux corps. They were used to hide away important papers and precious objects, and were highly valued.
The furniture made in the first half of the seventeenth century, in the reign of Louis XIII, was the last furniture made by joiners. During this period the Renaissance style grew stale. Independence was not encouraged by the school of Fontainebleau, and so the designers crowded more and more classical detail into their work. The furniture was overcharged with carving—not a square centimetre was allowed to remain undecorated. The mouldings became heavier and heavier and the reliefs higher and higher, till the underlying structure was almost entirely hidden.
It was at this time that ebony was reintroduced into Europe.
People were beginning to travel more: ships brought back cargoes of unfamiliar materials—from Africa, and from Madagascar, cargoes of ebony. At first ebony was very rare, and was used only for the most precious pieces of furniture—the cabinets. For the use of ebony a new technique was developed, requiring a special class of woodworker : cabinet-makers. The chief cabinet-maker to Louis XIII, Laurent Stabre, was described as a ‘joiner and carpenter in ebony’. This title was later shortened to jbiniste, the name by which cabinet-makers are still known in France today.
The technique of veneering used with ebony resulted in a completely new technique of decoration: inlay and marquetry. Marquetry designs can be fairly simple geometrical patterns, but usually the designs have been very complicated—sometimes whole pictures carried out in woods of various colours, or other materials. The marquetry cabinets of the middle of the seventeenth century were extremely elaborate. Their form was necessarily simple, for the technique of veneering a curved surface had not yet been invented; but every precious material obtainable, except precious stones, was introduced into marquetry. Some of the materials employed were ebony, ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl, copper, brass, silver, and tortoise-shell.
Another change in furniture-making in the first half of the seventeenth century was the wider use of turning. In Gothic furniture there was very little turning, apart from turned chairs, and early Renaissance furniture differed from it only in the detail of carved motifs. All this furniture was based on Gothic architecture, which, with its carved mouldings and clustered columns, did not provide models for turnery. Later Renaissance furniture embodied more of the elements of classical architecture than the earlier. The round columns of Greek buildings suggested designs in which turnery could be used; and the veneered furniture, free from carving, increased the opportunities for turning. Table legs, the legs and stretchers of chairs, and legs for cupboards, were all turned. The French turners got some of their ideas from the turners of the Low Countries, where turning was highly developed.
French furniture of the first half of the seventeenth century shows the boredom of its makers with the Renaissance style, and their interest in purely technical problems. But they were not sufficiently sure of the new techniques to use them to create a new style. This was left to the designers of a later period.
BAROQUE (1650-1750)
The French designers had acquired the habit of working to dictation from a higher authority. Louis XIV was the authori-
Louis XIV Carved Details
Acanthus leaf    Shell
tative patron of furniture-makers of this period, and he had, unfortunately, very dull tastes. He was determined to make France great, and considered that greatness and magnificent furniture went together. He therefore demanded magnificence from his designers. But Louis XIV furniture is remarkable for its magnificence alone. The personal influence of Louis XIV on the style of his time was stronger than the influence of any other important person on the style of his period. In 1662 Louis XIV founded the Manufacture Royale des Meubles de la Couronne at the Gobelins, later to be famous only as a tapestry factory. Here were made all the furniture and furnishings of the royal apartments at Versailles. These were first occupied in 1682.
When a country tries to become a leading nation, it tends to regard itself as capable of every kind of excellence. This attitude lessens the interest in the achievements of other peoples. In the period of Louis XIV, French designers did not look to the monuments of ancient Greece for inspiration, as their predecessors had done: they looked to Louis XIV. The motifs that had been imported during the previous century were regarded as national property; furniture-makers went on carving, and representing in their marquetry designs, the acanthus leaves and Cupid’s heads of Renaissance furniture, but they felt themselves thoroughly French in this. They carved the Renaissance motifs in a more elaborate way, as may be seen by compa -ing the Louis XIV acanthus leaf on page 129 with the Renaissance acanthus leaf previously illustrated. But in the larger details of their furniture they altogether abandoned Greek forms. Everything that was not veneered with precious materials or made of solid silver was covered with gilt, for grandeur.
All the accessory furnishings at Versailles were as lavish as the furniture itself. Claude de Villiers and his sons, Alexis Loir, Pierre Germain, Dutel and Ballin made stands for candlesticks, orange baskets, vases, chandeliers—all out of solid silver, decorated with bas-reliefs of the tasks of Hercules, the four seasons, and other mythological or symbolic themes. Louis sent these pieces to the mint in 1689, to help pay for the army, so they lasted only seven years.
All Louis XIV furniture is strictly symmetrical in form and in decorative detail. In early Louis XIV furniture straight lines predominated, and the effect was stiff and formal. For decoration, elaborately carved and symmetrically grouped trophies of ancient weapons were often used, in honour of Louis’s martial exploits. Chairs were upholstered in a variety of expensive fabrics—velvets, brocades, brocatelles, silks, satins, and damasks, embroidered fabrics and tapestries, and fabrics woven with metal threads. Beds were so covered up with fabrics that there was little or no woodwork to be seen, and so enormous that they were nearly all destroyed when the taste for smaller beds came in. There were thirty-three parts to the textile covering of a State bed; groups of ostrich and heron feathers surmounted the corner posts. Moliere had an Imperial bed, with an azure dome and eagle feet of green bronze.
The carved and gilded furniture—chairs, marble-topped tables with gilded supports, and day-beds (chaises-longues)—was all mixed up with the veneered furniture. This was even more splendid that the late Louis XIII veneered furniture; in it were employed many other woods besides ebony, to give more varied colour effects to the marquetry. Veneered furniture was frequently ornamented a l’or moulu: that is to say, with mounts of bronze, moulded and chiselled and then gilded. Charles Andre Boulle, who was lodged by the king in the Louvre, made much of this veneered furniture; his four sons carried on the work after him.
In the later Louis XIV furniture slightly curved lines were introduced, and fewer martial themes were used in decoration. Louis was now spending more of his time in the boudoir: the straight lines and trophies of arms did not suit the softened background. The chairs and tables had S-shaped or `cabriole’ legs, sometimes ending in doe’s feet.
Many pieces of furniture that we still use were invented during the reign of Louis XIV, such as bookcases, commodes, sideboards, card-tables, bureaux, sofas and comfortable upholstered arm-chairs. A house furnished in the style of Louis XIV would seem to us very magnificent, but we should find there types of furniture corresponding to most of those in use today.
It was during the reign of Louis XIV that the split between French Court furniture, the furniture of Parisian society, and the bourgeois furniture of the provinces first became important. From Louis XIV onwards there were two distinct sets of styles in France, the Court styles and the group of styles known as French Provincial. The French Provincial styles were generally derived from somewhat out-of-date Court styles. Their decoration, however, was much more sober. During the reign of Louis XIV the Provincial furniture was mostly of natural wood, oak or walnut; it was based on Louis XIII furniture, with a few of the innovations of the Louis XIV style. There are great differences in the styles of the various provinces, those in the south showing Italian and Spanish influence, and those in the north the influence of the Low Countries. But we shall not stop to examine these French Provincial styles, since the Court styles are more expressive of the typical French attitude towards style. Yet it should be remembered that by far the best French furniture—the most domestic and personal in character—is French Provincial furniture.

Tables, Dressers and Sideboards
Medieval boards and trestles—survival of the term “board”—the Tudor refectory table—pull-out or draw-leaf tables—the cre• dence and origin of the gate-leg table—long period of the gate-leg—occasional joined tables-18th-century patterns with club legs—the composite “D” end table—tripod tea tables with dished and pie-crust tops—dating by shape of feet—early games tables-18thcentury card tables–Sheraton quartette or nest tables—variations of the Pembroke style—sofa tables and early 19th-century folding tables—early dressers—dressers developed from side tables—Welsh dressers—appearance of the sideboard—Victorian chiffoniers mason’s patent ironstone china .
In the communal life of medieval times the servant ate with his master and his place at the table was a kind of status symbol regency revival furniture . The master would sit at the head with his guests and family; next would come the retainers of importance such as the steward and the priest and finally the servants expensive antique plates . Accordingly the table was a very long one and as the great hall was also used for recreation and even for sleeping the table had to be constructed so that, in spite of its size, it could be easily dismantled and put to one side when not required furniture+scallop+wheat .
Tables of the Gothic period were referred to as boards and trestles and were made in a variety of styles edwardian c19th construction buildings . Sometimes the supports were as those illustrated in the Luttrell Psalter and later they took the form of pedestals french words for dinner stand . Until the middle of the 16th century the table top consisted of a massive board of oak or elm boards nailed together 1600 century scroll back chair . When laid over the trestles or pedestals the very weight preserved its stability table consoul antiques caried or gold “rococo” . Even to this day, landladies advertise “board and lodging” and we still speak of a board of directors, a board room and a board of governors flemish trestle table . It is interesting to note how this term, used to describe a council of men and women meeting around a table, is a survival in our language from a very distant past catherine the great of russia plates .
By 1550 the communal life of the hall had begun to disappear john bell, porcelain, value . Houses were being built with a greater number of rooms and master and man took their meals apart kent silversmiths bread basket . There was no longer a need for the long trestle table and so a smaller table with a permanent underframe and legs was taken into general use writing cabinet officers antique . It was probably a smaller adaptation of the joined tables used in the abbey refectories and nowadays the term, refectory table, is used to describe it, although it was a purely domestic piece of furniture types of bureaux .
The refectory table, which was in everyday use from about 1550 to 1660, was usually 8 to 12 feet in length art deco brass stool . It was stoutly constructed with four, six or eight legs with bottom rails between them, and the top permanently fixed 19th century chairs’ . The underframing was made of oak but the top was often of elmwood, because of the wide boards which could be obtained from that tree antique neoclassical .
During the reign of Elizabeth I a variant of the refectory table, known as a draw-leaf table, appeared on the scene earthenware mixing bowls antique with handles . It enabled a comparatively short table to be extended to nearly twice its length by pulling out under-leaves from both ends dinnerware silver tureen . It was a design introduced from Flanders and France and it enjoyed an equal popularity with the refectory table botanical whimsies are considered some of the finest examples of art nouveau glass . Both of these types were displaced by the gate-leg table after the Restoration but the draw-leaf table has been revived during the 20th century and many modern homes possess similar, but lighter versions of the Elizabethan prototype steel dining table germany .
During the second half of the 16th and the early years
of the 17th centuries, table legs were massively made and often took the form of heavy bulbous turnings english creamware marks . On Flemish tables these swollen shapes are often spherical, like a melon, but the English versions were considerably more elongated with rounded tops and bottoms dresden german antiques . It has been said that these bulbous legs were functional in that they were designed to prevent rats climbing on to the table tops ant cherry antique dictionary tables . I have it on good authority from a biologist friend that any self-respecting rat could easily leap on to a table without any climbing aids 19th century gothic bedside tables .
Between 1600 and 1630, a small but sturdily constructed kind of side table was developed antique chippendale “solid mahogany” dining table lions paw . It must be considered a somewhat rare example of early Stuart furniture as examples these days are seldom encountered ernst archibald furniture . The tabletop was of the folding type, that is, it consisted of two halves hinged together and normally kept closed cherry ladies writing desk by pennsylvania house . When required for use, the upper leaf would be opened outwards and this would be supported by a fifth leg, which could be swung out as in a gate-leg table serpentine pembroke table . Actually, this small table was the forerunner of the gate-leg pattern turkish style sideboards uk . It is sometimes referred to as a credence table, which was placed at the side of the altar in the churches and on which the wine vessels and plate were arranged for use in the Communion service antique “trestle table” kent .
The gate-leg table, as already mentioned in Chapter 1, became generally fashionable after the Restoration and, in one form or another it is the one type of table which has been in continuous service ever since art deco polished matte lost-wax castings o nude women in bronze by viennese artisans . Usually made with a gate on each side, some larger tables are to be found with quadruple gates “art deco dresser” and “marble top” . These were of the period when spiral twist legs were in vogue and were made of walnut or, occasionally, of oak louis xv antique french commode .
A small type of side table, with a drawer and bobbin turned or baluster legs, must have been made in large numbers towards the end of the 17th century as they are frequently to be found in sale-rooms and antique shops antique music cabinete with mirror at the top . The finer versions are sometimes veneered and have curved stretchers as illustrated in Chapter 2 federal style table with brass paws . A more common and probably country-made variety is the so-called tavern table with its top overhanging the ends to a more than usual degree trent potteries designs by george jones . The drawers of these tables are sometimes found with joiner’s slides on the sides porcelain wincanton .
After being generally adopted as a dining table during the Restoration period, the gate-leg table was given a variety of leg shapes over the next hundred years rene lalique nude woman art deco lamp . Baluster and spiral twists gave place to scrolled legs and eventually to a type of cabriole shape known as the club leg italian,furniture,maker,address . Except for use on extending card tables, the cabriole leg was not ideally suited to larger table design, but the club leg variation remained in vogue until the introduction of the Chippendale square leg and the tapered legs of the Adam and Hepplewhite eras deco style dressing table .
It was customary during the late Stuart and William and Mary periods for a host to seat his guests at several gate-leg dining tables if the company was a large one sheffield rote iron . By the mid-18th century, however, long mahogany dining tables at which all the company could be seated, began to appear in the more important households antique wood cutlery urns . For over fifty years, these long dining tables consisted of one or several gate-leg tables, with rectangular side-leaves, which were joined together and semi-circular “D” end tables were placed at each end to make up the piece ruhimann table . The wide mahogany boards, introduced during the previous decades, rendered the construction of the broad table-tops a relatively simple matter antiques antique oak sideboards dutch style .
When only a few people were at dinner, the “D” ends would be placed against the wall to serve as side tables and only the gate-leg would be in use new york antiques light art deco . These “D” end tables are quite often to be seen in antique shops, either singly or in pairs, and it is not always realised that they have originally been part of a long Georgian dining table antique mahogany handkerchief table . When placed together, a pair of these tables make a very attractive circular dining table, which would be admirably suited to a present-day flat or smaller modern house http://antcollectors.com . The long “D” end tables continued in use well into the 19th century but the tapered legs were in time replaced by centre pedestals, each supported on four long curved feet antique furniture spanish art nouveaux . These were usually reeded and had brass-capped ends with castors or brass leopard-paw ends wheat antique dresser .
Designed during the closing years of the 17th century, but not becoming generally popular until fifty years later, the small, snap-top, tripod table with a circular top is probably one of the commonest pieces of antique furniture to be found today walnut escutcheons . The hinged top of the simpler country-made examples is usually flat but a tea table with a dished or slightly hollow top is not uncommon reproduced oval shaped dinnig table with lion’s paw . The dished top was designed to prevent spilt tea or milk running over on to the carpet campaign furniture pottery furniture . A more elaborate type of the dished top was known as a pie crust early 19th century mahogany desks with lion feet . Here the edge was carved into a series of scallop shapes, but genuine pie-crust tops are rare and there are many reproductions about value of george iii english mahogany gateleg card table? . Some tripod tea tables have an open, box-like structure fitted underneath, known as a birdcage and into which the single, central pillar is made to fit dutch silver 17th century . With this device, the table top not only folds upwards but can also be rotated so that any dish upon the table may be brought within reach of the guests period antique mahonany dining table with lions paw pedestal legs .
It is possible to date a tripod table, to within twenty years, by the shape of the feet tilt-top birdcage tea table . As illustrated on p small antique pembroke table fold-over . 63, the feet of around 1750 to 1770 have a flatter curve with a wider spread, while those of 1770 to 1790 have a more pronounced hump at the knee antique imari porcelain . From 1790 to 1810 approximately, the curve of the feet was reversed and by the time of the Regency, slender, concave shaped feet had been introduced toilet habits during 1800th century . The early Victorian period saw the revival of the “S” shape, but this was usually rather thick in proportion and decorated with elaborate carving bassano maiolica .
Tables which were specially designed for playing games were rare during the 17th century but an interesting piece, known as a shuffleboard table, is sometimes to be found in the long galleries of our greater country houses 18th century antique american gateleg . The long galleries were built for leisure and relaxation so that during the winter months, while the gentlemen went hunting, the ladies could take more gentle exercise indoors dressing table with small tables . The shuffleboard table can best be compared with a shove-ha’penny board, save that large brass discs were used instead of coins and the table top was often very long rh vase austria . There is one at Astley Hall in Lancashire which has twenty stout legs and is 2712 feet long jennens and bettridge . It must have been prefabricated and then assembled in the long gallery as it is far too large ever to have been brought up the staircase in one piece botanical antique ceramics collectors .
During the reign of Queen Anne and the Georgian period, card games were extremely popular and folding top tables with cabriole legs were in general use during that time finmar alvar aalto stool . These tables were, mostly made of walnut and had small recesses near the edges of the top to hold the guineas or counters while small circular platforms were provided at each corner to hold candlesticks for the night’s play fashion in the 16th century netherlands .
Card tables and tea tables, particularly the folding, semi-circular variety with tapered legs, were made to an almost identical pattern, the only difference being that the games tables had inset baize tops while the tea tables were of polished wood how a goldsmith made a candlestick . The early 19th century saw the production of many small games tables with tops inlaid for chess and backgammon and with drawers beneath to hold the apparatus for the games end tables lions head table with brass eagle claws on legs .
To Sheraton must be given the credit of designing the nest of tables, the idea for which appeared in his Cabinet Directory in 1803 antique kidney shaped dressing table . The nest comprises four small, separate tables which all fit one under another splay leg sofa table . They were originally referred to as quartette tables and being very lightly con-structed and somewhat fragile, it is uncommon to find an original, complete set of four istoriato china . Luckily, I have such a set in my possession which I believe was made by Gillow of Lancaster old gateleg wooden drop leaf tables . It was salvaged from a second-hand furniture shop, the tables being scattered around among the jumble and the shopkeeper having no idea, apparently, that they formed a unique set kakiemon bow price .
Small Pembroke tables with side flaps supported by hinged brackets and said to have been designed originally at the request of the Duchess of Pembroke for occasional use, appeared about 1775 mahogany french dining chairs . They were common in late Georgian homes and in the early part of the 19th century a larger version was made to serve as a supper or breakfast table rectangular drop leaf table antique .
Sofa tables were designed to stand behind a sofa and to carry such things as reading and writing matter, trays of refreshments and candelabras rococo display cabinet . A few years ago, they were fairly common but are now in such great demand as bedroom dressing tables, that they have become a somewhat rare and expensive item pop up cigarette deco dispenser .
The Regency and early Victorian periods saw a vast number of tables with folding tops, made to stand on a central pedestal with three or four feet value of clawfoot cabriole legged dressing table? . In this type, the double top, when opened out, could be rotated so that it was supported by a rectangular underframing odiot tureen . These tables were used for games, writing, serving tea and a whole host of leisure activites french scrolling art nouveau style chairs .
A necessary adjunct to every dining room is a sideboard and to every kitchen or living room, a dresser trestle draw leaf table . The sideboard, as its name implies, was a small side table in those far off days when a dining table was referred to as a board gateleg drop leaf table 19th century . As the piece of furniture we know, it did not appear until the second half of the 18th century 18th century french fashion . The dresser, on the other hand, is of far more ancient lineage and in the painting of the More family by Holbein, referred to in Chapter there is shown in the background a high-backed, canopied Gothic dresser, or, as it was called in that period, a dressoir dutch rococo walnut cupboard . These dressers were really related to the cupboard or buffet and further reference will be made to them in the chapter on Cupboards vintage porcelain plate with brass pedestal .
Dressers with a high back were out of fashion during the early Stuart and Commonwealth times but there were two simpler types in general use aaron burr antique furniture . One was made in the form of a long, narrow side table with three or four deep drawers refectory tables trestle . It stood on four or six legs and had an under shelf, as wide as the dresser top, near the floor level antique epergne glass . This was, no doubt, used for the display of brass and copper ware what were wood tables with porcelain tops used for . The other type was a development of the chest and presented a more solid appearance, the entire front being filled with drawers and small cupboards demilune chiffonier . This second kind of dresser was not generally adopted until after the Restoration but both types were used then until the end of the 17th century drop leaf table with lion claw feet .
By the beginning of the Georgian period most dressers were fitted with a set of plate shelves which stood at the rear of the dresser top poole pottery est. 1873 . This version was usually referred to as a Welsh dresser and while it may have been popular in the Welsh farmhouse kitchen, it was undoubtedly made throughout Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries drop leaf table with spiral turned legs . Occasionally dressers are found made in walnut but more frequently in oak with the edges of the drawer fronts and the cupboard doors cross-banded in walnut or mahogany antique cabinets coat of arms .
Long sidetables were normally used as sideboards in early Georgian dining rooms and on these would be placed the knife and fork boxes with the cellaret for wines underneath antique french ormulu furniture . It was about 1775 that the first sideboards were designed with drawers for the silver and cutlery and deep cupboards on either side to hold the wines boulle table . Sheraton is supposed to have added the low brass rail with a small silk curtain at the back to the designs for bow-fronted sideboards, which had originated during the Hepplewhite period goldscheider staffordshire myott .
In Victorian times, some monstrous sideboards were created with the addition of the most elaborate carving chamber pot cabinet . In the great dining room at Charlecote Park, near Stratford upon Avon, there is installed such a piece of furniture with carved effigies of every variety of edible fish, animal and fowl hanging in great swags from every point and corner chestnut tables antique . This monument to the questionable good taste of the Victorians is all meticulously worked in varnished oak, a spectacle which must have made the shade of Grinling Gibbons sadly shake its head turn a silver tray into a table .
On the other hand, it was during the mid-Victorian period that a very attractive little sideboard, known as a chiffonier, made its appearance antique claw foot table . It was equally useful as a sideboard for a small dining room or as a cabinet for a drawing room fish tail knife 16th century fruit knife 15th . Made in mahogany or veneered with burr walnut, it was certainly one of the more commendable inspirations of the designers during the Victorian era american antique slant front desk .

Walnut Period
MARQUETRY
We have had occasion to refer to this form of decoration, and we may here conveniently explain what this was. We saw in Elizabethan and Jacobean work that inlay was used considerably as decoration. This consisted of recessing out a solid background to a depth of-in, or more and insert-
ing pieces of wood of a different kind from that of the background. The whole point about it was that it was cut in the solid and that the recesses had to be chopped out with chisel and gouge. With solid work there was no other alternative.
We saw also that a new method of treatment was introduced in the form of veneering, and the coming of this enabled an entirely new method of ” inlaying ” to be used. In this the inlaying was done in the veneer before being laid, and, although this at first may not seem to carry with it any special advantage, it did in reality make a tremendous difference, involving an. entirely new technique. The reason for this was that the veneer, being thin, could be cut out with a saw instead of having to be laboriously chopped away with the chisel. A comparison is that of fretwork. The reader knows what fine sweeping curves can be cut with the fretsaw, But imagine how limited the result would be if all the spaces had to be chopped away with the gouge !
This use of the saw, then, in itself made a tremendous difference in the designs that could be cut, but there was more in it than this. By fixing together two sheets of veneer of different kinds of wood and cutting through them at the same time both would have exactly the same design. Thus it was only necessary to separate the sheets and interchange the parts and a perfect fit was obtained.
It was obviously necessary to use an extremely fine saw blade—it was very like a fretsaw blade—and it had to be held so that it would cut a trifle out of right angles with the veneer, so that the one sheet would be a trifle larger than the other, thus ensuring a tight fit. To ensure this a special sawing bench, known as a ” donkey,” was made. The worker sat astride and rested the feet on a treadle connected with a vice above which gripped the veneer. The saw frame was horizontal and was worked with the right hand, whilst the veneer was moved about with the left. When the whole design had been cut it was assembled on a bench, the parts being interchanged as required. Any shading required was done by dipping the parts into hot sand. The whole was then glued to a sheet of paper and handed to the cabinet maker for gluing down,
It was first used about 1675, and the early efforts were in comparison crude, consisting for the most part of flowers, leaf and scroll work arranged in a conventional design. A few years of experience, however, made the workers extremely skilful, and they began to produce some extremely elaborate patterns, known usually as seaweed marquetry, in which the detail was very fine. Curiously enough, however, marquetry did not retain its popularity for very long, for in Queen Anne’s reign plain walnut was mostly used in which the beauty of the grain, combined with cross-banding, provided the decorative appearance.
TABLES
It is a remarkable thing that there do not appear to have been made any large dining tables in the walnut style during the reigns of either William and Mary or Queen Anne. Possibly it was that the cabinet makers found a serious difficulty in veneering such large tops owing to the liability of the groundwork to shrink and split. They never used walnut in the solid except for such parts as legs and turnings. However this may be, one can only draw the conclusion that the old Jacobean table in oak continued to be used, and a strangely inconsistent arrangement it must have seemed.
Small side tables, card tables, and so on, were made largely, and two examples are given in Fig. 93. That to the left belongs to the William and Mary period (note the inverted cup turned legs and flat stretchers), and the other is a later type made in the early years of the eighteenth century. Card tables were similar in appearance, the top being made double so that it would open out to form an approximately square shape. The two back legs were pivoted so that they could pull out and support the overhanging top. Cards had become an extremely popular form of amusement at the period.
LACQUERED FURNITURE
Mention has already been made of the increased trade with the East resulting in the importation of Oriental pottery. Other items imported were lacquered cabinets of Queen Anne Bedsteads
entirely Chinese workmanship. These were plain rectangular cupboards with the interior fitted up with small drawers and cupboards. To be of practical use in a Western room they needed mounting upon a stand, and it therefore became the custom to import the cabinets and to make special stands for them which were either gilt or silvered. Fig. 95 is such a cabinet and stand, and shows the elaborate carving with which the stands were invariably decorated. Later it became customary for the lacquered cabinets themselves to be imitated in this country—in fact lacquering became a popular craze for people of leisure to take up. A Treatise on japanning and varnishing was published by Stalker and Parker which purported to explain the whole art of lacquering, but no lacquering was ever produced here which could in the slightest degree compare with the true native oriental work.
The craze for lacquered work quickly spread to other forms of furniture, and clock cases, bedsteads, and cabinets of all kinds were made in beech and lacquered in various colours. Red and black were the chief shades. Sometimes existing cabinets which had been finely veneered with walnut were lacquered over to satisfy the fashionable craze.
THE BEDROOM
The wooden bedstead of Jacobean times was replaced by the material-covered type in the William and Mary period, though as early as James I’s time the fashion of covering over the woodwork entirely with tapestry, plush, and other materials had become popular—at any rate amongst the people of leisure. One of the rooms at Knole House, Seven-oaks, was refurnished specially in honour of a visit by James I, and the bedstead is of the covered type.
Fig. 96 shows a covered bedstead dating from about 1700. Note that the cornice is made up of a number of short pieces of moulding mitred together, some straight and others curved. The material is strained over these. The actual wood used was generally beech and oak, except the exposed feet which were of walnut.
Other pieces used in the bedroom would be the chest of drawers, usually a tallboy, with which we have already dealt, or a wardrobe or press, which in appearance was somewhat similar to the secretaire in Fig. 83, except that the upper carcase was fitted with two doors instead of the fall front.

CHAIRS AND STOOLS
The chair as we left it in our chapter on Jacobean work was still a sturdily built piece of work though tending to
DETAILS OF THE CONSTRUCTION DRAWING, FIG. 74.
A. Queen Anne tallboy made in two separate parts.
B. Section through the built-up cross-grained cornice.
C. How thin oak back is fixed on.
D. Side viewof drawer showing dovetails.
E. Cut -away view with construction of carcase and drawer.
become lighter. A few were made with stuffed seats, and occasionally upholstered backs were added, but for the most part they were entirely of wood—or possibly were fitted with a leather seat stretched over the rails. This, though being softer than wood, could hardly be called upholstery.
After the middle of the century there arose a custom of using cane for the better type of chair back, and rushes for the commoner type. Upholstery, too, was used, though this did not become really popular until the reign of William and Mary. We may mention here that springs were never used. As a matter of passing interest, it was not until the nineteenth century that these came into use.
Twist Turning.—Caning is usually associated with the tall-back chairs which became popular during the second half of the seventeenth century, and this brings us to an interesting development, that of twist turning. Until about1625 or so only plain, straightforward turning had been attempted. The work was mounted in a curious contrivance known as the pole lathe, over which a long springy pole (hence the name) was suspended from a bracket in the wall. To the end of the pole was fixed a rope which stretched down to a drum attached to the chuck. It was taken a turn around

this and then down to a treadle. Thus when the operator depressed the treadle the work was revolved in a forward motion and the pole above was bent downwards. When the pressure on the treadle was released the pole sprang back, turning the work in the opposite direction.
It is obvious from this that the actual cutting could be done whilst the work was revolving forwards only, and when one considers the toughness of English oak, and the large size in which many of the old bulbous turnings were made, it is not surpri3ing that the turners did not go in a great deal for experiment. However, some ingenious craftsman, probably noticing the spiral made by his gouge as he passed it rapidly along the surface, did try his hand at forming a spiral or twist, and by a combination of pre-

liminary sawing out, rough turning, and use of carving tools to finish off, produced a rather uneven sort of twist.
It was not an easy business, however, one of the chief difficulties being that of making the same number of twists on each of a set of legs, and as a consequence twist turning did not make a great deal of progress until someone thought of making an attachment which would carry the gouge along sideways at a predetermined rate, which was set in accordance with the rate of revolutions of the work. In this way any number of turnings could be made, all exactly alike. There still are a few of these old pole lathes in use in the outlying districts of Buckinghamshire, where turnings for chairs are still made on a large scale.
A chair with twist turnings was given in Fig. 64 on p. 82, and in this we see the passing out of the old oak tradition. Chair making suffered something of a decline in the third quarter of the seventeenth century, at any rate from the point of view of construction. Instead of the seat rails being strongly tenoned between the legs, they were merely placed on top with no stronger attachment than a dowel

turned at the top of the legs. The same thing applied to the top rail of the back, which was simply fitted to dowels at the ends of the uprights. This detail is shown clearly in the chair in Fig. 75, though in this case the front seat rail is still tenoned between the legs.
This chair is fairly typical of the tall-back which persisted until the end of the seventeenth century. Turning was used considerably, even for the tops of the shaped front legs, and it is interesting to note that the back legs splay backwards. Even the early tall-backs did not have this detail, and if ever it were essential in any chair it was in one which was essentially lightly built and had a high back. For a man to lean back even slightly would be dangerous.

The legs are interesting in that they foreshadow the cabriole leg which was shortly to become popular, though when examined closely it is seen that they consist actually of a number of scrolls joined together with floral and leaf carving. Scroll work of this kind was used widely in chairs and stands of all kinds. It is seen in the front stretcher rail and in the back of that in Fig. 75.
Chairs with Cabriole Legs.—The introduction of the cabriole leg seemed to strike a new note in the design of chairs. It was not simply that a new motif was being used, but that the whole conception of the design became altered. Compare, for example, the two chairs on p. 98. It is obvious that the one has turned uprights whilst the other has shaped ones, but, in addition, there is an entirely new spirit in that in Fig. 76. In the earlier example, Fig. 75, one is conscious of a series of parts jointed together in an obvious sort of way. It is not suggested that this is a fault, but simply that the construction is at once apparent. One can count up the parts—two uprights, cresting rail, lower rail, seat rail, stretcher, and so on. And the earlier the chair the more obvious the parts and their purpose becomes.
Now turn to Fig. 76. It is not easy to see where the uprights and the top rail of the back begin and end. They merge one into the other, and the same thing applies to the slat and the rail beneath. The back is one whole, so to speak, and we shall find that this feeling becomes still more apparent in later chairs.
Reverting to the legs again, these are an early form of the cabriole type, and exemplify the Dutch influence which the accession of William of Orange brought with it. The probability is that many of these chairs were the work of foreign craftsmen who settled down here. A cabriole leg is by no means an easy thing to make, and it is doubtful whether a native craftsman could have turned out a really fine shape without previous experience. The awkward point about making the leg is that it is difficult to set down the true shape on paper. It can be drawn at the front, side, and possibly three-quarter positions, but the actual leg is seen from all angles and is normally viewed from above, a viewpoint which the drawing does not present.
Furthermore, in the very nature of the work the guiding lines on the wood are cut away as the work proceeds,

because the whole thing is more or less rounded in section. In actual practice the leg is cut out of a square right through to the over-all shape when looked at from the front. A corresponding shape is cut at the side, this producing a square cut shape. The point to realise is that the cutting

of the first shape automatically removes the lines of the second shape, and it is only by temporarily replacing the sawn-away parts that the shape can be cut true. In any case the resulting shape has only a distant resemblance to the finished line, and it is in the final shaping that experience is needed, because there are no square lines to which to work. Everything is curved in both directions, and it is only by eye that a really fine shape can be produced, one which looks well when seen from every angle. The whole thing is complicated when carving is to appear, because sufficient thickness has to be allowed for this, and the presence of these plain lumps is apt, to give a false impression of the shape as a whole.
We have gone into these practical points at some length because the cabriole leg became so characteristic a feature of

furniture for the following seventy-five years or so. Really fine legs are few and far between, the majority being overdone in the shape, and we shall find that they deteriorated considerably after Queen Anne’s reign until rescued by the school of Chippendale.
In the present instance, Fig. 76, it will be noticed that the legs terminate in a hoof foot, whilst at the top the sides are scrolled in imitation of the horns of the goat. These details are often found in William and Mary furniture, after which they gave place to the turned club foot, with which we shall meet in the next example. In the meantime it should be noted that the legs are still linked together with stretcher rails. It is true that the last-named are on an altogether lighter scale than in earlier pieces (see Fig. 64) and are gracefully shaped, but the chairmaker has not yet felt confident enough to omit them entirely, which was the next stage in the development of the chair.
Another feature of the chair in Fig. 76 met with for the first time is the curve in the rake of the back, and it is interesting to glance at the diagram in Fig. 78, which shows the various stages of development. There is the earliest straight post (J) cut from a square of timber and continuing from leg to back in a straight line. This was used mostly in the old settles of Gothic times (see Fig. 14, p. 23). Then came the idea of setting the back at an angle (K), a phase which lasted until past the middle of the seventeenth century. An example is given in Fig. 37, P. SO. In the same period in a few chairs little blocks were added at the bottom as at L to help to counterbalance the weight. This is exemplified in Fig. 18, P. 25. Next, the legs were at last splayed as at M, though the back still remained straight without any curve (see Fig. 65, P. 82). N gives the next development, as in the chair in Fig. 76, whilst 0 shows the shape which the majority of chairs in the later eighteenth century had, of which Fig. 102 is an example.
A last point to note about the chair in Fig. 76 is the shaped splat. This was something quite fresh (see last example in Fig. 75), and had certain definite stages in development. It is shown in the armchair in Fig. 77 in its most characteristic form. Apart from its shaped edges it follows the general line of the back when viewed from the side.
These two chairs in Fig. 77 exemplify the walnut period in its fullest stage of development in the Queen Anne period. That to the left is especially characteristic in the shape of the back, the splat, and the full cabriole legs with turned club feet. Note that the back is appreciably lower and that the shaping of the uprights has become more pronounced, especially in the rounded shape at the top. The splat, too, is entirely solid and has an urn-like formation.
The fact that the backs were shaped in both front and side elevations made them extremely expensive to produce, and it was for this reason that the square back type to the right in Fig. 77 was made for a more economical job. The uprights merely taper and they are quite straight in their rake. In the best chairs, however, the full shaping was given, and on some models the back was entirely veneered with cross-grain walnut. Another feature to note is the entire absence of stretcher rails.
Just as the development in the shape of the rake of the
.
back can be followed in a series of stages, so the plain shape of the seats developed on certain characteristic lines. These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 78, from the square boxlike formation of early Tudor times to the tapering shape of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and the elaborately shaped seats of walnut furniture. Later on there was a return to the simpler form.

One other innovation in the walnut period in connection with the seats was the loose drop-in variety shown in Fig. 77

to the right. These were not used exclusively, the ” stuff-over ” method (left in Fig. 77) being also used frequently.
The development of upholstery has already been mentioned, and in Fig. 79 we have the fully upholstered arm-chair of about 1705. The projecting wings and the scrolled arms are especially characteristic, and bear out the prevailing popularity of shaped work.
.
Stools.—The two stools in Fig. 8o are of the William and Mary (left) and Queen Anne (right) periods. In the earlier specimens the legs are actually turned, and the scrolled and recessed detail is carved out of the shape. The shaped stretchers are similar to those already shown in the chest of drawers in Fig. 70, except that the edges are moulded instead of being square. In the Queen Anne stool the stretchers are omitted. The legs are worth noting in that they terminate with spade feet. These are carved out entirely, no turning being used. Other features often found are the shell carving on the knee with the pendant husks below, and the scrolls at the sides immediately beneath the ears.
The day-bed in the form shown in Fig. 67, P. 84, did not last into the eighteenth century. Its place was taken by the settee, which was rather like two or more chairs joined together side by side. There was sometimes a centre leg, though it was frequently omitted.

FIG. 75. TALL-BACK CHAIR WITH UPHOLSTERED SEAT.
Late 17th century.
Note that the top back rail is simply pegged to the turned uprights. The legs which are suggestive of the cabriole shape are in reality a series of scrolls.
FIG.76. WILLIAM AND MARY
CHAIR.
Late 17th century.
The back shows the hoop form in its embryo stage. It has the appearance of a complete thing in itself instead of consisting of uprights, cross rails and slats as in Fig. 75 above.
The legs have the hoof foot and scrolled ears In Imitation of the goat’s horns.

FIG. 77. WALNUT CHAIRS WITH CABRIOLE LEGS AND CLUB FEET.
Early 18th century.
The left-hand example exemplifies the development of double shaped work in
the hooped back. In the less expensive chair to the right the back is raked only,
with no shaping at the front. Note the use of the urn-shaped splat in both
examples.

FIG. 79. UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR.
Early i8th century.
Although thickly padded, these chairs were
never fitted with springs. The last named
belong to the 19th century.

FIG. 80. STOOLS OF THE WALNUT PERIOD.
Late 17th century.    Early z8th century.
The legs of the left-hand stool are turned and the carving is cut into the turning.
Note the omission of the stretcher in the right-hand stool. The shell and husk
carving is typical.

FIG. 81. SMALL BUREAU AND BUREAU WITH CUPBOARD.
Late 17th century.    Early 18th century.
The inverted cup shape of the turned legs in the small bureau shows the William and Mary period. The mirrored doors of the cupboard in the right-hand example were a common feature in Queen Anne pieces of this kind.

FIG. 82. SMALL WALNUT WRITING TABLE.
Early 18th century.
This exemplifies well the way in which the construction
was entirely concealed by the use of veneer. The apron
piece beneath the drawers is often seen in Queen Anne
tables.

FIG. 83. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD SECRETAIRE.
Early 18th century.
The front of the upper carcase is hinged so that it drops down and Corms a
writing top. The inside is fitted up for stationery.

FIG. 84. WALNUT VENEERED CHINA CABINET.
Early 18th century.
The barred doors owed their origin to the difficulty of producing glass In
large panes. They were cross-grained with a rib at the back.

FIG. 85. CHINA CABINET WITH BARRED DOORS ON STAND.
Late 171h century.
The craze for collecting china encouraged by Queen Mary was the cause
of the introduction of the china cabinet.

English Antique Jacobean Furniture. Jacobean Chairs.

JACOBEAN PERIOD
THIS chapter carries us from the beginning of the house of Stuart in 1603 until the end of the Common-
wealth in 1660. So far- as domestic furniture was concerned, except for certain smaller details and a few innovations, it differed little from that of Elizabeth’s reign. The same wood (oak) was used, the Renaissance was still the source from which ideas were taken, and the quality of the work was similar. It is dealt with in a separate chapter, however, because it was the last phase in a certain definite technique. Vast changes were at hand, the greatest that have ever overtaken furniture throughout its history, and it is
therefore natural that one should pause and give special
emphasis to a style which had run its course and was to become as dead as the proverbial doornail.
However, these changes are dealt with particularly in Chapter IV, and our present purpose is to see what sort of furniture men were making when James the Sixth of Scotland became the First of England, and during the troublous years that followed, culminating in the declaration of the Commonwealth. It may be objected that Charles II was also a Stuart Monarch, and that his period should be included in this chapter. The changes just mentioned, however, began during his reign, so that although all Charles II furniture is, strictly speaking, Jacobean, much of it is usually referred to as ” Early Walnut,” because of the marked differences in style. The terminology is one of style rather than one of period.
The accession of James did not make a great deal of difference in the lives of the majority of the populace. The stirring spirit of the Renaissance was still a great influence, if in rather diminished form, and the endeavour of men to make their homes more comfortable continued. The journeys of discovery and conquest during Elizabeth’s reign had opened up a new source of wealth, trading had increasedtremendously (itself a source of wealth, and, equally important, to a new class), and these coinciding with the coming of Renaissance gave encouragement to the domestic arts.
The outbreak of war in Charles I reign must have acted as a strong brake on the progress of things, yet it was not so marked as one might have imagined.
A campaign in the north might turn men’s thoughts locally from making, or having made, things for their houses, but in even an adjoining county people might know little of what was happening owing to lack of easy transit. Then, again, during the winter months little was possible in the way of military activities, so that altogether there was more time for craftsmanship than might at first be imagined.
Cromwell’s short protectorship of eleven years or so helped to restore the trade which had been largely lost. His naval victories opened the seas again to our ships, and this is always one of the finest tonics the domestic arts can have.
JACOBEAN CHAIRS
The late sixteenth century chair, as exemplified in Fig. 18, was remarkable more for its massiveness and strength than
comfort, and its direct successor in Jacobean times was little different. It had a similar formation, with panelled back sloping at an angle, semi-scrolled arms, and turned legs. The back was usually carved with various conventional designs of leaf and flower work, arcadings, or
geometrical pattern. Fig. 37 is a typical example. -Note that the scrolled cresting still lies above the uprights and that the ear pieces are retained. Chairs of this kind con-tinued to be made throughout the Jacobean period and in country districts until the close of the seventeenth century.
There were, however, changes at hand. It is obvious that for a chair of the type in Fig. 37 to have any comfort at all it would have to be provided with a cushion—certainly one for the seat and if possible one for the back. One can imagine a man seated by the fireside closely considering the point,

and calling in his carpenter to devise some means of padding the chair. Or possibly a man who had travelled abroad had seen the comfort which foreign countries had attained (they were always before us in this sort of thing), felt something of disgust at the comparatively barbaric state of things which still maintained here, and so set his craftsmen to work out a new idea.
Beginning of Upholstery.—However this may be, it was during the reign of James I that the first upholstered chair made its appearance. Possibly the reader may be surprised that the idea had not occurred to men earlier. Upholstery on a chair seems such an obvious thing. It must be remembered that people’s outlook on life dAers. at various periods. What may seem right to one generation may appear to be merely foolish to another. In early days the chair was a seat of honour ; there would probab’.-,- be only one in even a large hall, and a man using it would not

look specially to find comfort in it. In fact, anything :;n the way of comfort was regarded with a certain feeling of contempt and was felt to be effeminate. Shakespeare, in his Richard III, makes Buckingham say, ” This prince is not an Edward ! He is not lolling on a lewd day-bed.” This day-bed was the counterpart of the modern settee. Presumably, when people were really ill, they stayed in bed. If they got up at all they were expected to go about the ordinary business of the day.

There was something effeminate in the character and habits of James I, and this rapidly showed itself in the Royal court : its manners, dress, conditions, and so on. As a consequence there was a general tendency for men to have a less Spartan-like outlook, and an immediate consequence so far as furniture was concerned was the introduction of the upholstered chair.
One of the finest collections of chairs of this type, dating

from the early seventeenth century, is that at Knole House, near Sevenoaks. Many rooms in this old mansion were refurnished in preparation for a visit by James I, and vast numbers of chairs were made for the purpose. They form an interesting example of how men, once they like an idea, will fly to extremes, for practically every portion of the woodwork is covered with material—even the legs, which obviously would not in any way add to the comfort of the chair.
A popular innovation—or rather revival, for the type had been in use earlier—was the X chair, an example of which is given in Fig. 39. The reason for the name is obvious from the general formation. Note how every part of the framing is covered with material. It is, in fact, very like the collection of chairs at Knole. The provision of the footstool is typical.
It will be realised that upholstered chairs of this kind might be well enough in a great mansion or palace, but would not stand up to the everyday use of busy households in a humbler state of life. These needed something sturdier, and Fig. 38 is an example of the sort of upholstered chair that would have been found in the average well-to-do house. Not that all the chairs were of this kind ; there might not be more than one or two in a whole house, the majority being of the plain wood type, but that such upholstered chairs that did exist were mostly of this kind.
Farthingale Chairs.—We have at this period an interesting example of how costume came to influence the design of furniture. The fashion of the time dictated that ladies should wear the huge farthingale dress, and one can imagine how awkward it must have been for a lady to sit down in an armchair of the kind in, say, Fig. 37. So came into being the farthingale chair, of which an example is given in Fig. 41. The absence of arms allows the dress to spread out at each side without hindrance. The X chair in Fig. 39 would serve the purpose equally well, since there is a deep, loose cushion above the upholstered seat and the arms are low.
Two chairs probably made during the Cromwellian period are shown in Fig. 40. They are of a sound, thoroughly reliable form that would stand up to the hardest wear. That to the left has a covering of leather (so thin that it can scarcely be called upholstery), held on with large roundhead nails, and the front legs have the bobbin turning very popular at the time. The other has a wooden seat, and a point worthy of note is the open back with slats. This marks one more step in the progress of the chair from its heavy, massive formation to the light proportions it was eventually to assume. Note that in both chairs the back legs are still upright and that the stretcher rails are retained, although in that to the right the front one is raised from its former lower position level with the side rails.
The Settle.—Whilst on the subject of chairs, it may be noted that the settle was still made in country districts.

The farmhouse in particular usually had its settle, the sturdy construction and plain form making it more suitable for the rougher conditions inevitable in the country. Another similar piece was that which for some unknown reason has been given the curious title of ” monk’s bench,” though what its possible connection with monks can be is difficult to understand. We refer of course to the settle with the movable back, which was made to tilt and slide forward, so forming a table. The example in Fig. 42 shows this feature, and it will also be seen that the lower portion is in the form of a chest, the lid of which forms the seat. Lunette carving, such as that on the rails, was a favourite form of decoration.

PANELLED BACK CHAIR AND FRAMED STOOL.
First half 17th century.
The construction of the chair is practically identical with that shown on
p. 25, and the general treatment is similar. Note the scrolled cresting
and ear pieces. The stool has the baluster shaped legs popular through-
out Jacobean times.

FIG. 45. SIMPLE FORM OF GATE-LEG TABLE.
First half 17th century.
The workmanship is extremely crude, and is probably that of a country
carpenter. The urn-shaped ends are probably copied from the baluster
turnings of the period.
FIG. 46. DOUBLE GATE-LEG TABLE.
Mid. 171h century.
An altogether better specimen of a table. The use of two gates to each
side is rather unusual.

EXAMPLE
OF THE X PATTERN
CHAIR.
Early 17th century.
This is a type of chair that be ame popular during James I reign. At Knole Park, Kent, large numbers of these chairs still exist. They were made specially in honour of a visit paid by James I.

ARMCHAIR COVERED WITH TURKEY WORK.
First half 17th century.
In this we see the early beginning of the upholstered chair, though in itself it can hardly claim to be upholstered. It Is little more than a covering ,stretched over the framework.

CROMWELLIAN AND YORKSHIRE TYPE CHAIRS.
Mid. 171h century.
The example to the left is typical of the plainer sort of chair made during
the Commonwealth. It has a stout leather covering stretched over the
framework. The other chair is characteristic of the kind made in York-
shire or Derbyshire.

FARTHINGALE CHAIR OF JAMES I TIME.
‘this illustration is intended to show the way in which costume affected
the design of the chair. ‘the huge farthingale dress made impossible
the use of the armchair of the type shown in Fig. 37.

COMBINED TABLE, SETTLE, AND CHEST.
Mid. IVh century.
The rarity of domestic furniture is shown by this piece which series
three distinct purposes. These are popularly known as ” monks’
benches,” though there is not the slightest connection between them and
monks.

. THE SETTLE IN JACOBEAN TIMES.
First half 17th century.
The settle in Fig. 15, p. 23, should be compared with this. Note how the
lower portion is completely open and has turned legs.